Évolution humaine – Wikipédia
Processus évolutif menant à des humains anatomiquement modernes
Evolution humaine est le processus évolutif qui a conduit à l’émergence d’humains anatomiquement modernes, en commençant par l’histoire évolutive des primates – en particulier du genre Homo—Et conduisant à l’émergence de Homo sapiens en tant qu’espèce distincte de la famille des hominidés, qui comprend les grands singes. Ce processus impliquait le développement progressif de traits tels que la bipédie humaine et le langage,[1] ainsi que le croisement avec d’autres hominidés, ce qui indique que l’évolution humaine n’était pas linéaire mais une toile.[2][3][4][5]
L’étude de l’évolution humaine implique plusieurs disciplines scientifiques, notamment l’anthropologie physique, la primatologie, l’archéologie, la paléontologie, la neurobiologie, l’éthologie, la linguistique, la psychologie évolutive, l’embryologie et la génétique.[6] Des études génétiques montrent que les primates divergeaient des autres mammifères sur 85 il y a des millions d’années, à la fin du Crétacé, et les premiers fossiles apparaissent au Paléocène, autour de 55 il y a des millions d’années.[7]
Au sein de la superfamille des Hominoidea, la famille des Hominidae a divergé de la famille des Hylobatidae il y a environ 15 à 20 millions d’années; sous-famille Homininae (singes africains) a divergé de Ponginae (orangs-outans[a]) il y a environ 14 millions d’années; la tribu Hominini (y compris les humains, Australopithèque, et les chimpanzés) se sont séparés de la tribu Gorillini (gorilles) il y a 8 à 9 millions d’années; et, à leur tour, les sous-tribus Hominina (humains et ancêtres bipèdes éteints) et Panina (chimpanzés) se sont séparés il y a 4 à 7 millions d’années.[8]
Changements anatomiques[[[[Éditer]
L’évolution humaine depuis sa première séparation d’avec le dernier ancêtre commun des humains et des chimpanzés est caractérisée par un certain nombre de changements morphologiques, développementaux, physiologiques et comportementaux. Les plus importantes de ces adaptations sont la bipédie, l’augmentation de la taille du cerveau, l’allongement de l’ontogénie (gestation et petite enfance) et la diminution du dimorphisme sexuel. La relation entre ces changements fait l’objet d’un débat permanent.[9][[[[page nécessaire] D’autres changements morphologiques significatifs ont inclus l’évolution d’une prise de puissance et de précision, un changement intervenant pour la première fois dans H. erectus.[10]
Bipédie[[[[Éditer]
Le bipédie est l’adaptation de base de l’hominidé et est considéré comme la principale cause derrière une série de changements squelettiques partagés par tous les hominidés bipèdes. Le premier hominin, de bipédie vraisemblablement primitif, est considéré comme étant soit Sahelanthropus[11] ou Orrorin, tous deux nés il y a environ 6 à 7 millions d’années. Les marcheurs non bipèdes, les gorilles et les chimpanzés, ont divergé de la lignée hominine sur une période couvrant la même période, donc soit Sahelanthropus ou Orrorin peut être notre dernier ancêtre partagé. Ardipithèque, bipède à part entière, est né il y a environ 5,6 millions d’années.[12]
Les premiers bipèdes ont finalement évolué vers les australopithèques et encore plus tard dans le genre Homo. Il existe plusieurs théories sur la valeur d’adaptation de la bipédie. Il est possible que la bipédie ait été favorisée car elle a libéré les mains pour atteindre et transporter de la nourriture, économisé de l’énergie pendant la locomotion,[13] a permis la course et la chasse sur de longues distances, a fourni un champ de vision amélioré et a aidé à éviter l’hyperthermie en réduisant la surface exposée au soleil direct; caractéristiques toutes avantageuses pour prospérer dans le nouvel environnement de savane et de forêt créé à la suite du soulèvement de la vallée du Rift en Afrique de l’Est par rapport à l’habitat forestier clos précédent.[14][13][15] Une étude de 2007 soutient l’hypothèse selon laquelle la marche sur deux jambes, ou la bipédie, a évolué parce qu’elle consommait moins d’énergie que la marche des articulations quadrupédales.[16][17] Cependant, des études récentes suggèrent que la bipédie sans la capacité d’utiliser le feu n’aurait pas permis une dispersion globale.[18] Ce changement de démarche a vu un allongement des jambes proportionnellement par rapport à la longueur des bras, qui ont été raccourcis grâce à la suppression du besoin de brachiation. Un autre changement est la forme du gros orteil. Des études récentes suggèrent que les australopithèques vivaient encore une partie du temps dans les arbres en raison du maintien d’un gros orteil agrippant. Cela s’est progressivement perdu dans les habilines.
Anatomiquement, l’évolution de la bipédie s’est accompagnée d’un grand nombre de modifications squelettiques, non seulement des jambes et du bassin, mais aussi de la colonne vertébrale, des pieds et des chevilles et du crâne.[19] Le fémur a évolué vers une position légèrement plus angulaire pour déplacer le centre de gravité vers le centre géométrique du corps. Les articulations du genou et de la cheville sont devenues de plus en plus robustes pour mieux supporter un poids accru. Pour supporter le poids accru sur chaque vertèbre en position verticale, la colonne vertébrale humaine est devenue en forme de S et les vertèbres lombaires sont devenues plus courtes et plus larges. Dans les pieds, le gros orteil s’est aligné avec les autres orteils pour aider à la locomotion vers l’avant. Les bras et les avant-bras se raccourcissent par rapport aux jambes, ce qui facilite la course. Le foramen magnum a migré sous le crâne et plus en avant.[20]
Les changements les plus significatifs se sont produits dans la région pelvienne, où la longue lame iliaque tournée vers le bas a été raccourcie et élargie pour maintenir le centre de gravité stable pendant la marche;[21] Les hominidés bipèdes ont un bassin plus court mais plus large en forme de bol pour cette raison. Un inconvénient est que le canal de naissance des singes bipèdes est plus petit que chez les singes qui marchent aux articulations, bien qu’il y ait eu un élargissement de celui-ci par rapport à celui de l’australopithecine et des humains modernes, permettant le passage des nouveau-nés en raison de l’augmentation de la taille du crâne mais ceci est limité à la partie supérieure, car une augmentation supplémentaire peut gêner le mouvement bipède normal.[22]
Le raccourcissement du bassin et du canal génital plus petit a évolué comme une exigence de la bipédie et a eu des effets significatifs sur le processus de naissance humaine qui est beaucoup plus difficile chez les humains modernes que chez les autres primates. Lors de la naissance humaine, en raison de la variation de taille de la région pelvienne, la tête du fœtus doit être en position transversale (par rapport à la mère) lors de l’entrée dans le canal génital et tourner d’environ 90 degrés à la sortie.[23] Le canal génital plus petit est devenu un facteur limitant de l’augmentation de la taille du cerveau chez les premiers humains et a provoqué une période de gestation plus courte conduisant à l’immaturité relative de la progéniture humaine, qui sont incapables de marcher beaucoup avant 12 mois et ont une néoténie plus sont mobiles à un âge beaucoup plus précoce.[15] L’augmentation de la croissance cérébrale après la naissance et la dépendance accrue des enfants à l’égard des mères ont eu un effet majeur sur le cycle de reproduction féminin[24] et l’apparition plus fréquente de l’alloparentalité chez l’homme par rapport aux autres hominidés.[25] Le retard de la maturité sexuelle humaine a également conduit à l’évolution de la ménopause, une explication étant que les femmes âgées pourraient mieux transmettre leurs gènes en prenant soin de la progéniture de leur fille, plutôt qu’en ayant plus d’enfants.[26]
Encéphalisation[[[[Éditer]
L’espèce humaine a finalement développé un cerveau beaucoup plus gros que celui des autres primates – généralement 1330 cm3 (81 cu in) chez les humains modernes, près de trois fois la taille d’un cerveau de chimpanzé ou de gorille.[27] Après une période de stase avec Australopithecus anamensis et Ardipithèque, espèces qui avaient un cerveau plus petit en raison de leur locomotion bipède,[28] le modèle d’encéphalisation a commencé avec Homo habilis, dont 600 cm3 (37 cu in) le cerveau était légèrement plus gros que celui des chimpanzés. Cette évolution s’est poursuivie en l’homo erectus avec 800–1 100 cm3 (49–67 cu in), et atteint un maximum chez les Néandertaliens avec 1 200–1 900 cm3 (73-116 cu in), plus grand même que moderne Homo sapiens. Cette augmentation cérébrale s’est manifestée lors de la croissance cérébrale postnatale, dépassant de loin celle des autres singes (hétérochronie). Il a également permis de longues périodes d’apprentissage social et d’acquisition du langage chez les jeunes humains, commençant il y a jusqu’à 2 millions d’années.
En outre, les changements dans la structure du cerveau humain peuvent être encore plus importants que l’augmentation de la taille.[29][30][31][32]
Les lobes temporaux, qui contiennent des centres de traitement du langage, ont augmenté de manière disproportionnée, tout comme le cortex préfrontal, qui a été lié à une prise de décision complexe et à un comportement social modérateur.[27] L’encéphalisation a été liée à une augmentation de la viande et des féculents dans l’alimentation,[33][34][35] et le développement de la cuisine,[36] et il a été proposé que l’intelligence augmente en réponse à une nécessité accrue de résoudre les problèmes sociaux à mesure que la société humaine devenait plus complexe.[37] Des changements dans la morphologie du crâne, tels que des mandibules plus petites et des attaches musculaires mandibulaires, ont laissé plus de place au cerveau pour se développer.[38]
L’augmentation du volume du néocortex comprenait également une augmentation rapide de la taille du cervelet. Sa fonction a traditionnellement été associée à l’équilibre et au contrôle de la motricité fine, mais plus récemment à la parole et à la cognition. Les grands singes, y compris les hominidés, avaient un cervelet plus prononcé par rapport au néocortex que les autres primates. Il a été suggéré qu’en raison de sa fonction de contrôle sensori-moteur et d’apprentissage d’actions musculaires complexes, le cervelet pourrait avoir sous-tendu les adaptations technologiques humaines, y compris les conditions préalables de la parole.[39][40][41][42]
L’avantage de survie immédiate de l’encéphalisation est difficile à discerner, car le cerveau principal change de l’homo erectus à Homo heidelbergensis n’ont pas été accompagnées de changements technologiques majeurs. Il a été suggéré que les changements étaient principalement sociaux et comportementaux, y compris des capacités empathiques accrues,[43][44] augmentation de la taille des groupes sociaux,[45][46][47] et une plasticité comportementale accrue.[48] L’encéphalisation peut être due à une dépendance à des aliments riches en calories et difficiles à acquérir.[49]
Dimorphisme sexuel[[[[Éditer]
Le degré réduit de dimorphisme sexuel chez l’homme est principalement visible dans la réduction de la dent canine mâle par rapport aux autres espèces de singes (à l’exception des gibbons) et dans la réduction des arcades sourcilières et de la robustesse générale des mâles. Un autre changement physiologique important lié à la sexualité chez les humains a été l’évolution de l’oestrus caché. Les humains sont les seuls hominoïdes dans lesquels la femelle est fertile toute l’année et dans lesquels aucun signal spécial de fertilité n’est produit par le corps (comme un gonflement génital ou des changements manifestes de proceptivité pendant l’œstrus).[50]
Néanmoins, les humains conservent un certain dimorphisme sexuel dans la distribution des poils et de la graisse sous-cutanée, et dans la taille globale, les mâles étant environ 15% plus grands que les femelles.[51] Ces changements pris ensemble ont été interprétés comme le résultat d’un accent accru sur les liens de couple comme une solution possible à l’exigence d’un investissement parental accru en raison de la petite enfance prolongée de la progéniture.[52]
Opposition ulnaire[[[[Éditer]
L’opposition ulnaire – le contact entre le pouce et le bout du petit doigt de la même main – est unique au genre Homo,[53] y compris les Néandertaliens, les hominines Sima de los Huesos et les humains anatomiquement modernes.[54][55] Chez d’autres primates, le pouce est court et incapable de toucher le petit doigt.[54] L’opposition ulnaire facilite la prise de précision et la prise de force de la main humaine, sous-tendant toutes les manipulations habiles.
Autres changements[[[[Éditer]
Un certain nombre d’autres changements ont également caractérisé l’évolution des humains, parmi lesquels une importance accrue sur la vision plutôt que sur l’odorat; une période de développement juvénile plus longue et une dépendance infantile plus élevée; un intestin plus petit; métabolisme basal plus rapide;[56] perte de poils corporels; évolution des glandes sudoripares; un changement dans la forme de l’arcade dentaire, passant d’une forme en U à une forme parabolique; développement d’un menton (trouvé dans Homo sapiens en solo); développement de processus styloïdes; et le développement d’un larynx descendant.
Histoire de l’étude[[[[Éditer]
-dix –
–
-9 –
–
-8 –
–
-7 –
–
-6 –
–
-5 –
–
-4 –
–
-3 –
–
-2 –
–
-1 –
–
0 –
Avant Darwin[[[[Éditer]
Le mot homo, le nom du genre biologique auquel appartiennent les humains, est le latin pour «humain».[b] Il a été choisi à l’origine par Carl Linnaeus dans son système de classification.[c] Le mot «humain» vient du latin humanus, la forme adjectivale de homo. Le latin «homo» dérive de la racine indo-européenne *dhghem, ou « terre ».[57] Linné et d’autres scientifiques de son temps considéraient également les grands singes comme les plus proches parents des humains sur la base de similitudes morphologiques et anatomiques.[58]
Darwin[[[[Éditer]
La possibilité de relier les humains aux singes antérieurs par descendance n’est devenue claire qu’après 1859 avec la publication de Charles Darwin’s À propos de l’origine des espèces, dans lequel il a plaidé pour l’idée de l’évolution de nouvelles espèces à partir des précédentes. Le livre de Darwin n’a pas abordé la question de l’évolution humaine, disant seulement que « la lumière sera jetée sur l’origine de l’homme et de son histoire ».[59]
Les premiers débats sur la nature de l’évolution humaine ont surgi entre Thomas Henry Huxley et Richard Owen. Huxley a plaidé en faveur de l’évolution humaine à partir des singes en illustrant de nombreuses similitudes et différences entre les humains et les autres singes, et l’a fait en particulier dans son livre de 1863. Preuve de la place de l’homme dans la nature. Beaucoup des premiers partisans de Darwin (tels qu’Alfred Russel Wallace et Charles Lyell) n’étaient pas d’accord au départ que l’origine des capacités mentales et des sensibilités morales des humains pouvait être expliquée par la sélection naturelle, bien que cela ait changé plus tard. Darwin a appliqué la théorie de l’évolution et de la sélection sexuelle aux humains dans son livre de 1871 La descente de l’homme et la sélection par rapport au sexe.[60]
Premiers fossiles[[[[Éditer]
Un problème majeur au 19ème siècle était le manque d’intermédiaires fossiles. Des restes de Néandertal ont été découverts dans une carrière de calcaire en 1856, trois ans avant la publication de À propos de l’origine des espèces, et des fossiles de Néandertal avaient été découverts à Gibraltar encore plus tôt, mais on prétendait à l’origine qu’il s’agissait des restes d’un humain moderne qui avait souffert d’une sorte de maladie.[61] Malgré la découverte par Eugène Dubois en 1891 de ce qu’on appelle aujourd’hui l’homo erectus à Trinil, Java, ce n’est que dans les années 1920, lorsque de tels fossiles ont été découverts en Afrique, que les espèces intermédiaires ont commencé à s’accumuler.[62] En 1925, Raymond Dart décrit Australopithecus africanus.[63] Le spécimen type était l’enfant Taung, un bébé australopithécine qui a été découvert dans une grotte. Les restes de l’enfant étaient un minuscule crâne remarquablement bien conservé et une endocast du cerveau.
Bien que le cerveau soit petit (410 cm3), sa forme était arrondie, contrairement à celle des chimpanzés et des gorilles, et plus comme un cerveau humain moderne. En outre, le spécimen montrait des dents canines courtes et la position du foramen magnum (le trou dans le crâne où la colonne vertébrale entre) était la preuve d’une locomotion bipède. Tous ces traits ont convaincu Dart que l’enfant Taung était un ancêtre humain bipède, une forme de transition entre les singes et les humains.
Les fossiles d’Afrique de l’Est[[[[Éditer]
Au cours des années 1960 et 1970, des centaines de fossiles ont été découverts en Afrique de l’Est dans les régions de la gorge d’Olduvai et du lac Turkana. Ces recherches ont été effectuées par la famille Leakey, avec Louis Leakey et son épouse Mary Leakey, puis leur fils Richard et sa belle-fille Meave, des chasseurs de fossiles et des paléoanthropologues. À partir des lits de fossiles d’Olduvai et du lac Turkana, ils ont amassé des spécimens des premiers hominins: les australopithèques et Homo espèces, et même l’homo erectus.
Ces découvertes ont cimenté l’Afrique en tant que berceau de l’humanité. À la fin des années 1970 et dans les années 1980, l’Éthiopie est devenue le nouveau point chaud de la paléoanthropologie après « Lucy », le membre fossile le plus complet de l’espèce. Australopithecus afarensis, a été trouvé en 1974 par Donald Johanson près de Hadar dans la région désertique du triangle Afar au nord de l’Éthiopie. Bien que le spécimen ait un petit cerveau, les os du bassin et des jambes étaient presque identiques en fonction à ceux des humains modernes, montrant avec certitude que ces hominidés avaient marché en érection.[64] Lucy a été classée comme une nouvelle espèce, Australopithecus afarensis, que l’on pense être plus étroitement lié au genre Homo en tant qu’ancêtre direct, ou en tant que parent proche d’un ancêtre inconnu, que tout autre hominidé ou hominidé connu de cette période précoce; voir termes « hominidé » et « hominin ».[65] (Le spécimen a été surnommé « Lucy » après la chanson des Beatles « Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds », qui a été jouée bruyamment et à plusieurs reprises dans le camp pendant les fouilles.)[66] La zone du triangle Afar permettrait plus tard la découverte de beaucoup plus de fossiles d’hominidés, en particulier ceux découverts ou décrits par des équipes dirigées par Tim D.White dans les années 1990, y compris Ardipithecus ramidus et Ardipithecus kadabba.[67]
En 2013, des squelettes fossiles de Homo naledi, une espèce disparue d’hominidés assignée (provisoirement) au genre Homo, ont été trouvés dans le système Rising Star Cave, un site de la région sud-africaine du berceau de l’humanité dans la province de Gauteng, près de Johannesburg.[68][69] À partir de septembre 2015[update], des fossiles d’au moins quinze individus, soit 1 550 spécimens, ont été extraits de la grotte.[69] L’espèce est caractérisée par une masse corporelle et une stature similaires à celles des populations humaines de petite taille, un volume endocrânien plus petit similaire à Australopithèque, et une morphologie crânienne (forme du crâne) similaire au début Homo espèce. L’anatomie squelettique combine des caractéristiques primitives connues des australopithèques avec des caractéristiques connues des premiers hominidés. Les individus montrent des signes d’avoir été délibérément éliminés dans la grotte près du moment de la mort. Les fossiles datent d’il y a près de 250000 ans,[70] et ne sont donc pas un ancêtre direct mais un contemporain avec la première apparition d’humains anatomiquement modernes au cerveau plus gros.[71]
La révolution génétique[[[[Éditer]
La révolution génétique dans les études de l’évolution humaine a commencé lorsque Vincent Sarich et Allan Wilson ont mesuré la force des réactions immunologiques croisées de l’albumine sérique sanguine entre des paires de créatures, y compris les humains et les singes africains (chimpanzés et gorilles).[72] La force de la réaction pouvait être exprimée numériquement comme une distance immunologique, qui était à son tour proportionnelle au nombre de différences d’acides aminés entre des protéines homologues dans différentes espèces. En construisant une courbe d’étalonnage de l’ID des paires d’espèces avec des temps de divergence connus dans les archives fossiles, les données pourraient être utilisées comme une horloge moléculaire pour estimer les temps de divergence des paires avec des enregistrements fossiles plus pauvres ou inconnus.
Dans leur article fondateur de 1967 Science, Sarich et Wilson ont estimé le temps de divergence des humains et des singes il y a quatre à cinq millions d’années,[72] à une époque où les interprétations standard des archives fossiles donnaient cette divergence d’au moins 10 à 30 millions d’années. Découvertes de fossiles ultérieures, notamment « Lucy », et réinterprétation de matériaux fossiles plus anciens, notamment Ramapithecus, ont montré que les estimations les plus récentes étaient correctes et ont validé la méthode de l’albumine.
Les progrès du séquençage de l’ADN, en particulier de l’ADN mitochondrial (ADNmt), puis de l’ADN du chromosome Y (ADN-Y) ont fait progresser la compréhension des origines humaines.[73][14][74] L’application du principe de l’horloge moléculaire a révolutionné l’étude de l’évolution moléculaire.
Sur la base d’une séparation d’avec l’orang-outan il y a 10 à 20 millions d’années, des études antérieures de l’horloge moléculaire suggéraient qu’il y avait environ 76 mutations par génération qui n’étaient pas héritées par les enfants humains de leurs parents; cette preuve a soutenu le temps de divergence entre les hominidés et les chimpanzés noté ci-dessus. Cependant, une étude de 2012 en Islande portant sur 78 enfants et leurs parents suggère un taux de mutation de seulement 36 mutations par génération; cette donnée étend la séparation entre les humains et les chimpanzés à une période antérieure de plus de 7 millions d’années (Ma). Des recherches supplémentaires portant sur 226 descendants de populations de chimpanzés sauvages dans huit sites suggèrent que les chimpanzés se reproduisent à l’âge de 26,5 ans en moyenne; ce qui suggère que la divergence entre l’homme et les chimpanzés s’est produite il y a entre 7 et 13 millions d’années. Et ces données suggèrent que Ardipithèque (4,5 Ma), Orrorin (6 Ma) et Sahelanthropus (7 Ma) tous peuvent être sur la lignée des hominidés, et même que la séparation peut avoir eu lieu en dehors de la région du Rift est-africain.
En outre, l’analyse des gènes des deux espèces en 2006 fournit la preuve qu’après que les ancêtres humains ont commencé à diverger des chimpanzés, l’accouplement interspécifique entre «proto-humain» et «proto-chimpanzé» s’est néanmoins produit assez régulièrement pour modifier certains gènes du nouveau gène. bassin:
- Une nouvelle comparaison des génomes humains et chimpanzés suggère qu’après la séparation des deux lignées, elles ont peut-être commencé à se reproduire … Une découverte principale est que les chromosomes X des humains et des chimpanzés semblent avoir divergé environ 1,2 million d’années plus récemment que l’autre. chromosomes.
La recherche suggère:
- Il y avait en fait deux clivages entre les lignées humaine et chimpanzé, le premier étant suivi d’un croisement entre les deux populations, puis d’un second scission. La suggestion d’une hybridation a surpris les paléoanthropologues, qui traitent néanmoins sérieusement les nouvelles données génétiques.[75]
La quête du premier hominin[[[[Éditer]
Dans les années 1990, plusieurs équipes de paléoanthropologues travaillaient dans toute l’Afrique à la recherche de preuves de la première divergence de la lignée des hominidés par rapport aux grands singes. En 1994, Meave Leakey a découvert Australopithecus anamensis. La découverte a été éclipsée par la découverte de Tim D.White en 1995 de Ardipithecus ramidus, qui a repoussé les archives fossiles à 4.2 il y a des millions d’années.
En 2000, Martin Pickford et Brigitte Senut ont découvert, dans les collines de Tugen au Kenya, un hominidé bipède âgé de 6 millions d’années qu’ils ont nommé Orrorin tugenensis. Et en 2001, une équipe dirigée par Michel Brunet a découvert le crâne de Sahelanthropus tchadensis qui était daté du 7,2 il y a des millions d’années, et qui, selon Brunet, était un bipède, et donc un hominidé, c’est-à-dire un hominidé (cf Hominidae; termes «hominidés» et hominines).
Dispersion humaine[[[[Éditer]
Différents modèles pour le début de l’espèce humaine actuelle.
Les anthropologues des années 1980 étaient divisés sur certains détails des barrières reproductives et des dispersions migratoires du genre Homo. Par la suite, la génétique a été utilisée pour étudier et résoudre ces problèmes. Selon la théorie de la pompe du Sahara, les preuves suggèrent que le genre Homo ont émigré hors d’Afrique au moins trois et peut-être quatre fois (par ex. l’homo erectus, Homo heidelbergensis et deux ou trois fois pour Homo sapiens). Des données récentes suggèrent que ces dispersions sont étroitement liées aux périodes fluctuantes de changement climatique.[78]
Des preuves récentes suggèrent que les humains ont peut-être quitté l’Afrique un demi-million d’années plus tôt qu’on ne le pensait auparavant. Une équipe conjointe franco-indienne a trouvé des artefacts humains dans les Siwalk Hills au nord de New Delhi datant d’au moins 2,6 millions d’années. C’est plus tôt que la première découverte précédente du genre Homo à Dmanisi, en Géorgie, datant de 1,85 million d’années. Bien que controversés, les outils trouvés dans une grotte chinoise renforcent le cas selon lequel les humains utilisaient des outils il y a seulement 2,48 millions d’années.[79] Cela suggère que la tradition asiatique des outils «Chopper», trouvée à Java et dans le nord de la Chine, a peut-être quitté l’Afrique avant l’apparition de la hache à main acheulienne.
Dispersion du moderne Homo sapiens[[[[Éditer]
Jusqu’à ce que les preuves génétiques soient disponibles, il y avait deux modèles dominants pour la dispersion des humains modernes. L’hypothèse multirégionale a proposé que le genre Homo ne contenait qu’une seule population interconnectée comme elle le fait aujourd’hui (et non des espèces séparées), et que son évolution s’est déroulée dans le monde de manière continue au cours des deux derniers millions d’années. Ce modèle a été proposé en 1988 par Milford H. Wolpoff.[80][81] En revanche, le modèle «hors de l’Afrique» proposait que les H. sapiens spécifiés en Afrique récemment (c’est-à-dire il y a environ 200000 ans) et la migration ultérieure à travers l’Eurasie a entraîné le remplacement presque complet d’autres Homo espèce. Ce modèle a été développé par Chris B. Stringer et Peter Andrews.[82][83]
Le séquençage de l’ADNmt et de l’ADN-Y prélevés sur un large éventail de populations autochtones a révélé des informations ancestrales relatives au patrimoine génétique masculin et féminin, et a renforcé la théorie «hors de l’Afrique» et affaibli les vues de l’évolutionnisme multirégional.[84] Les différences alignées dans les arbres génétiques ont été interprétées comme soutenant une origine unique récente.[85] Les analyses ont montré une plus grande diversité de modèles d’ADN à travers l’Afrique, conformément à l’idée que l’Afrique est la patrie ancestrale de l’Ève mitochondriale et de l’Adam chromosomique Y, et que la dispersion humaine moderne hors d’Afrique ne s’est produite qu’au cours des 55000 dernières années.[86]
« Out of Africa » a ainsi obtenu un large soutien de la recherche utilisant l’ADN mitochondrial féminin et le chromosome Y masculin. Après avoir analysé les arbres généalogiques construits à l’aide de 133 types d’ADNmt, les chercheurs ont conclu que tous descendaient d’une progénitrice africaine, surnommée Eve mitochondriale. «Out of Africa» est également soutenu par le fait que la diversité génétique mitochondriale est la plus élevée parmi les populations africaines.[87]
Une vaste étude de la diversité génétique africaine, dirigée par Sarah Tishkoff, a révélé que le peuple San avait la plus grande diversité génétique parmi les 113 populations distinctes échantillonnées, ce qui en fait l’un des 14 «groupes de population ancestraux». La recherche a également localisé une origine possible de la migration humaine moderne dans le sud-ouest de l’Afrique, près de la frontière côtière de la Namibie et de l’Angola.[88] Les preuves fossiles étaient insuffisantes pour l’archéologue Richard Leakey pour résoudre le débat sur l’endroit exact où en Afrique les humains modernes sont apparus pour la première fois.[89] Les études des haplogroupes dans l’ADN chromosomique Y et l’ADN mitochondrial ont largement soutenu une origine africaine récente.[90] Toutes les preuves de l’ADN autosomique soutiennent également principalement une origine africaine récente. Cependant, des preuves d’un mélange archaïque chez les humains modernes, à la fois en Afrique et plus tard, dans toute l’Eurasie ont récemment été suggérées par un certain nombre d’études.[91]
Séquençage récent de Neandertal[92] et Denisovan[93] génomes montre qu’il y a eu un certain mélange avec ces populations. Tous les groupes humains modernes en dehors de l’Afrique ont 1 à 4% ou (selon des recherches plus récentes) environ 1,5 à 2,6% d’allèles de Néandertal dans leur génome,[94] et certains Mélanésiens ont 4 à 6% d’allèles de Denisovan supplémentaires. Ces nouveaux résultats ne contredisent pas le modèle «hors de l’Afrique», sauf dans son interprétation la plus stricte, bien qu’ils rendent la situation plus complexe. Après s’être rétabli d’un goulot d’étranglement génétique dont certains chercheurs pensent qu’il pourrait être lié à la catastrophe du supervolcan Toba, un groupe assez restreint a quitté l’Afrique et s’est croisé avec des Néandertaliens, probablement au Moyen-Orient, dans la steppe eurasienne ou même en Afrique du Nord avant leur départ. Leurs descendants encore majoritairement africains se sont répandus pour peupler le monde. Une fraction à son tour s’est croisée avec les Denisovans, probablement en Asie du Sud-Est, avant de peupler la Mélanésie.[95]Des haplotypes HLA d’origine Neandertal et Denisova ont été identifiés dans les populations modernes d’Eurasie et d’Océanie.[96] Le gène Denisovan EPAS1 a également été trouvé dans les populations tibétaines.[97] Des études du génome humain utilisant l’apprentissage automatique ont identifié des contributions génétiques supplémentaires chez les Eurasiens à partir d’une population ancestrale «inconnue» potentiellement liée à la lignée Neandertal-Denisovan.[98]
Il existe encore des théories différentes sur la question de savoir s’il y a eu un ou plusieurs exodes d’Afrique. Un modèle de dispersion multiple implique la théorie de la dispersion méridionale,[99][100][101] qui a obtenu le soutien ces dernières années de preuves génétiques, linguistiques et archéologiques. Dans cette théorie, il y a eu une dispersion côtière d’humains modernes de la Corne de l’Afrique, traversant le Bab el Mandib jusqu’au Yémen à un niveau inférieur de la mer il y a environ 70 000 ans. Ce groupe a contribué à peupler l’Asie du Sud-Est et l’Océanie, expliquant la découverte des premiers sites humains dans ces régions bien plus tôt que ceux du Levant.[99] Ce groupe semble avoir dépendu des ressources marines pour sa survie.
Stephen Oppenheimer a proposé qu’une deuxième vague d’humains se soit dispersée plus tard à travers les oasis du golfe Persique et les montagnes de Zagros jusqu’au Moyen-Orient. Alternativement, il peut avoir traversé la péninsule du Sinaï en Asie, peu de temps après 50 000 ans BP, résultant en la majeure partie des populations humaines d’Eurasie. Il a été suggéré que ce deuxième groupe possédait peut-être une technologie d’outils de «chasse au gros gibier» plus sophistiquée et dépendait moins des sources de nourriture côtières que le groupe d’origine. Une grande partie des preuves de l’expansion du premier groupe aurait été détruite par l’élévation du niveau de la mer à la fin de chaque maximum glaciaire.[99] Le modèle de dispersion multiple est contredit par des études indiquant que les populations d’Eurasie et les populations d’Asie du Sud-Est et d’Océanie descendent toutes des mêmes lignées d’ADN mitochondrial L3, qui supportent une seule migration hors d’Afrique qui a donné naissance à toutes les populations non africaines. .[102]
Sur la base de la date précoce de l’aurignacien iranien de Badoshan, Oppenheimer suggère que cette deuxième dispersion pourrait avoir eu lieu avec une période pluviale d’environ 50000 ans avant le présent, avec des cultures de chasse au gros gibier humaines modernes s’étendant dans les montagnes Zagros, portant des génomes humains modernes d’Oman, dans tout le golfe Persique, vers le nord en Arménie et en Anatolie, avec une variante voyageant vers le sud en Israël et en Cyrénicie.[103]
Des preuves génétiques récentes suggèrent que toutes les populations non africaines modernes, y compris celles d’Eurasie et d’Océanie, descendent d’une seule vague qui a quitté l’Afrique il y a entre 65 000 et 50 000 ans.[104][105][106]
Preuve[[[[Éditer]
Les preuves sur lesquelles reposent les récits scientifiques de l’évolution humaine proviennent de nombreux domaines des sciences naturelles. The main source of knowledge about the evolutionary process has traditionally been the fossil record, but since the development of genetics beginning in the 1970s, DNA analysis has come to occupy a place of comparable importance. The studies of ontogeny, phylogeny and especially evolutionary developmental biology of both vertebrates and invertebrates offer considerable insight into the evolution of all life, including how humans evolved. The specific study of the origin and life of humans is anthropology, particularly paleoanthropology which focuses on the study of human prehistory.[107]
Evidence from molecular biology[[[[Éditer]
The closest living relatives of humans are bonobos and chimpanzees (both genus Pan) and gorillas (genus Gorilla).[108] With the sequencing of both the human and chimpanzee genome, as of 2012[update] estimates of the similarity between their DNA sequences range between 95% and 99%.[108][109][110] By using the technique called the molecular clock which estimates the time required for the number of divergent mutations to accumulate between two lineages, the approximate date for the split between lineages can be calculated.
The gibbons (family Hylobatidae) and then the orangutans (genus Pongo) were the first groups to split from the line leading to the hominins, including humans—followed by gorillas (genus Gorilla), and, ultimately, by the chimpanzees (genus Pan). The splitting date between hominin and chimpanzee lineages is placed by some between 4 to 8 million years ago, that is, during the Late Miocene.[111][112][113]Speciation, however, appears to have been unusually drawn out. Initial divergence occurred sometime between 7 to 13 million years ago, but ongoing hybridization blurred the separation and delayed complete separation during several millions of years. Patterson (2006) dated the final divergence at 5 to 6 million years ago.[114]
Genetic evidence has also been employed to resolve the question of whether there was any gene flow between early modern humans and Neanderthals, and to enhance our understanding of the early human migration patterns and splitting dates. By comparing the parts of the genome that are not under natural selection and which therefore accumulate mutations at a fairly steady rate, it is possible to reconstruct a genetic tree incorporating the entire human species since the last shared ancestor.
Each time a certain mutation (single-nucleotide polymorphism) appears in an individual and is passed on to his or her descendants, a haplogroup is formed including all of the descendants of the individual who will also carry that mutation. By comparing mitochondrial DNA which is inherited only from the mother, geneticists have concluded that the last female common ancestor whose genetic marker is found in all modern humans, the so-called mitochondrial Eve, must have lived around 200,000 years ago.
Genetics[[[[Éditer]
Human evolutionary genetics studies how one human genome differs from the other, the evolutionary past that gave rise to it, and its current effects. Differences between genomes have anthropological, medical and forensic implications and applications. Genetic data can provide important insight into human evolution.
Evidence from the fossil record[[[[Éditer]
There is little fossil evidence for the divergence of the gorilla, chimpanzee and hominin lineages.[115] The earliest fossils that have been proposed as members of the hominin lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis dating from 7 million years ago, Orrorin tugenensis dating from 5.7 million years ago, et Ardipithecus kadabba dating to 5.6 million years ago. Each of these have been argued to be a bipedal ancestor of later hominins but, in each case, the claims have been contested. It is also possible that one or more of these species are ancestors of another branch of African apes, or that they represent a shared ancestor between hominins and other apes.
The question then of the relationship between these early fossil species and the hominin lineage is still to be resolved. From these early species, the australopithecines arose around 4 million years ago and diverged into robust (also called Paranthropus) and gracile branches, one of which (possibly A. garhi) probably went on to become ancestors of the genus Homo. The australopithecine species that is best represented in the fossil record is Australopithecus afarensis with more than 100 fossil individuals represented, found from Northern Ethiopia (such as the famous « Lucy »), to Kenya, and South Africa. Fossils of robust australopithecines such as Au. robustus (or alternatively Paranthropus robustus) et Au./P. boisei are particularly abundant in South Africa at sites such as Kromdraai and Swartkrans, and around Lake Turkana in Kenya.
The earliest member of the genus Homo est Homo habilis which evolved around 2.8 million years ago.[116]Homo habilis is the first species for which we have positive evidence of the use of stone tools. They developed the Oldowan lithic technology, named after the Olduvai Gorge in which the first specimens were found. Some scientists consider Homo rudolfensis, a larger bodied group of fossils with similar morphology to the original H. habilis fossils, to be a separate species, while others consider them to be part of H. habilis—simply representing intraspecies variation, or perhaps even sexual dimorphism. The brains of these early hominins were about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, and their main adaptation was bipedalism as an adaptation to terrestrial living.
During the next million years, a process of encephalization began and, by the arrival (about 1.9 million years ago) de l’homo erectus in the fossil record, cranial capacity had doubled. l’homo erectus were the first of the hominins to emigrate from Africa, and, from 1.8 to 1.3 million years ago, this species spread through Africa, Asia, and Europe. One population of H. erectus, also sometimes classified as a separate species Homo ergaster, remained in Africa and evolved into Homo sapiens. It is believed that these species, H. erectus et H. ergaster, were the first to use fire and complex tools.
The earliest transitional fossils between H. ergaster/erectus and archaic H. sapiens are from Africa, such as Homo rhodesiensis. These descendants of African H. erectus spread through Eurasia from ca. 500,000 years ago, evolving into H. antecessor, H. heidelbergensis et H. neanderthalensis. The earliest fossils of anatomically modern humans are from the Middle Paleolithic, about 300–200,000 years ago such as the Herto and Omo remains of Ethiopia, Jebel Irhoud remains of Morocco, and Florisbad remains of South Africa; later fossils from Es Skhul cave in Israel and Southern Europe begin around 90,000 years ago (0.09 million years ago).
As modern humans spread out from Africa, they encountered other hominins such as Homo neanderthalensis and the Denisovans, who may have evolved from populations of l’homo erectus that had left Africa around 2 million years ago. The nature of interaction between early humans and these sister species has been a long-standing source of controversy, the question being whether humans replaced these earlier species or whether they were in fact similar enough to interbreed, in which case these earlier populations may have contributed genetic material to modern humans.[117][118]
This migration out of Africa is estimated to have begun about 70–50,000 years BP and modern humans subsequently spread globally, replacing earlier hominins either through competition or hybridization. They inhabited Eurasia and Oceania by 40,000 years BP, and the Americas by at least 14,500 years BP.[119]
Inter-species breeding[[[[Éditer]
The hypothesis of interbreeding, also known as hybridization, admixture or hybrid-origin theory, has been discussed ever since the discovery of Neanderthal remains in the 19th century.[120] The linear view of human evolution began to be abandoned in the 1970s as different species of humans were discovered that made the linear concept increasingly unlikely. In the 21st century with the advent of molecular biology techniques and computerization, whole-genome sequencing of Neanderthal and human genome were performed, confirming recent admixture between different human species.[92] In 2010, evidence based on molecular biology was published, revealing unambiguous examples of interbreeding between archaic and modern humans during the Middle Paleolithic and early Upper Paleolithic. It has been demonstrated that interbreeding happened in several independent events that included Neanderthals and Denisovans, as well as several unidentified hominins.[121] Today, approximately 2% of DNA from all non-African populations (including Europeans, Asians, and Oceanians) is Neanderthal,[122] with traces of Denisovan heritage.[123] Also, 4–6% of modern Melanesian genetics are Denisovan.[123] Comparisons of the human genome to the genomes of Neandertals, Denisovans and apes can help identify features that set modern humans apart from other hominin species. In a 2016 comparative genomics study, a Harvard Medical School/UCLA research team made a world map on the distribution and made some predictions about where Denisovan and Neanderthal genes may be impacting modern human biology.[124][125]
For example, comparative studies in the mid-2010s found several traits related to neurological, immunological,[126] developmental, and metabolic phenotypes, that were developed by archaic humans to European and Asian environments and inherited to modern humans through admixture with local hominins.[127][128]
Although the narratives of human evolution are often contentious, several discoveries since 2010 show that human evolution should not be seen as a simple linear or branched progression, but a mix of related species.[93][3][4][5] In fact, genomic research has shown that hybridization between substantially diverged lineages is the rule, not the exception, in human evolution.[2] Furthermore, it is argued that hybridization was an essential creative force in the emergence of modern humans.[2]
Before Homo[[[[Éditer]
Early evolution of primates[[[[Éditer]
The evolutionary history of the primates can be traced back 65 million years.[129][130][131][132][133] One of the oldest known primate-like mammal species, the Plesiadapis, came from North America;[134][135][136][137][138][139] another, Archicebus, came from China.[140] Other similar basal primates were widespread in Eurasia and Africa during the tropical conditions of the Paleocene and Eocene.
David R. Begun[141] concluded that early primates flourished in Eurasia and that a lineage leading to the African apes and humans, including to Dryopithecus, migrated south from Europe or Western Asia into Africa. The surviving tropical population of primates—which is seen most completely in the Upper Eocene and lowermost Oligocene fossil beds of the Faiyum depression southwest of Cairo—gave rise to all extant primate species, including the lemurs of Madagascar, lorises of Southeast Asia, galagos or « bush babies » of Africa, and to the anthropoids, which are the Platyrrhines or New World monkeys, the Catarrhines or Old World monkeys, and the great apes, including humans and other hominids.
The earliest known catarrhine is Kamoyapithecus from uppermost Oligocene at Eragaleit in the northern Great Rift Valley in Kenya, dated to 24 million years ago.[142] Its ancestry is thought to be species related to Aegyptopithecus, Propliopithecus, et Parapithecus from the Faiyum, at around 35 million years ago.[143] En 2010, Saadanius was described as a close relative of the last common ancestor of the crown catarrhines, and tentatively dated to 29–28 million years ago, helping to fill an 11-million-year gap in the fossil record.[144]
In the Early Miocene, about 22 million years ago, the many kinds of arboreally adapted primitive catarrhines from East Africa suggest a long history of prior diversification. Fossils at 20 million years ago include fragments attributed to Victoriapithecus, the earliest Old World monkey. Among the genera thought to be in the ape lineage leading up to 13 million years ago are Proconsul, Rangwapithecus, Dendropithecus, Limnopithecus, Nacholapithecus, Equatorius, Nyanzapithecus, Afropithecus, Heliopithecus, et Kenyapithecus, all from East Africa.
The presence of other generalized non-cercopithecids of Middle Miocene from sites far distant—Otavipithecus from cave deposits in Namibia, and Pierolapithecus et Dryopithecus from France, Spain and Austria—is evidence of a wide diversity of forms across Africa and the Mediterranean basin during the relatively warm and equable climatic regimes of the Early and Middle Miocene. The youngest of the Miocene hominoids, Oreopithecus, is from coal beds in Italy that have been dated to 9 million years ago.
Molecular evidence indicates that the lineage of gibbons (family Hylobatidae) diverged from the line of great apes some 18–12 million years ago, and that of orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) diverged from the other great apes at about 12 million years; there are no fossils that clearly document the ancestry of gibbons, which may have originated in a so-far-unknown Southeast Asian hominoid population, but fossil proto-orangutans may be represented by Sivapithecus from India and Griphopithecus from Turkey, dated to around 10 million years ago.[21]
Divergence of the human clade from other great apes[[[[Éditer]
Species close to the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees and humans may be represented by Nakalipithecus fossils found in Kenya and Ouranopithecus found in Greece. Molecular evidence suggests that between 8 and 4 million years ago, first the gorillas, and then the chimpanzees (genus Pan) split off from the line leading to the humans. Human DNA is approximately 98.4% identical to that of chimpanzees when comparing single nucleotide polymorphisms (see human evolutionary genetics). The fossil record, however, of gorillas and chimpanzees is limited; both poor preservation – rain forest soils tend to be acidic and dissolve bone – and sampling bias probably contribute to this problem.
Other hominins probably adapted to the drier environments outside the equatorial belt; and there they encountered antelope, hyenas, dogs, pigs, elephants, horses, and others. The equatorial belt contracted after about 8 million years ago, and there is very little fossil evidence for the split—thought to have occurred around that time—of the hominin lineage from the lineages of gorillas and chimpanzees. The earliest fossils argued by some to belong to the human lineage are Sahelanthropus tchadensis (7 Ma) and Orrorin tugenensis (6 Ma), followed by Ardipithecus (5.5–4.4 Ma), with species Ar. kadabba et Ar. ramidus.
It has been argued in a study of the life history of Ar. ramidus that the species provides evidence for a suite of anatomical and behavioral adaptations in very early hominins unlike any species of extant great ape.[145] This study demonstrated affinities between the skull morphology of Ar. ramidus and that of infant and juvenile chimpanzees, suggesting the species evolved a juvenalised or paedomorphic craniofacial morphology via heterochronic dissociation of growth trajectories. It was also argued that the species provides support for the notion that very early hominins, akin to bonobos (Pan paniscus) the less aggressive species of the genus Pan, may have evolved via the process of self-domestication. Consequently, arguing against the so-called « chimpanzee referential model »[110] the authors suggest it is no longer tenable to use chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) social and mating behaviors in models of early hominin social evolution. When commenting on the absence of aggressive canine morphology in Ar. ramidus and the implications this has for the evolution of hominin social psychology, they wrote:
Of course Ar. ramidus differs significantly from bonobos, bonobos having retained a functional canine honing complex. However, the fact that Ar. ramidus shares with bonobos reduced sexual dimorphism, and a more paedomorphic form relative to chimpanzees, suggests that the developmental and social adaptations evident in bonobos may be of assistance in future reconstructions of early hominin social and sexual psychology. In fact the trend towards increased maternal care, female mate selection and self-domestication may have been stronger and more refined in Ar. ramidus than what we see in bonobos.[145]:128
The authors argue that many of the basic human adaptations evolved in the ancient forest and woodland ecosystems of late Miocene and early Pliocene Africa. Consequently, they argue that humans may not represent evolution from a chimpanzee-like ancestor as has traditionally been supposed. This suggests many modern human adaptations represent phylogenetically deep traits and that the behavior and morphology of chimpanzees may have evolved subsequent to the split with the common ancestor they share with humans.
Genre Australopithèque[[[[Éditer]
Le genre Australopithèque evolved in eastern Africa around 4 million years ago before spreading throughout the continent and eventually becoming extinct 2 million years ago. During this time period various forms of australopiths existed, including Australopithecus anamensis, Au. afarensis, Au. sediba, et Au. africanus. There is still some debate among academics whether certain African hominid species of this time, such as Au. robustus et Au. boisei, constitute members of the same genus; if so, they would be considered to be Au. robust australopiths whilst the others would be considered Au. gracile australopiths. However, if these species do indeed constitute their own genus, then they may be given their own name, Paranthropus.
- Australopithèque (4–1.8 Ma), with species Au. anamensis, Au. afarensis, Au. africanus, Au. bahrelghazali, Au. garhi, et Au. sediba;
- Kenyanthropus (3–2.7 Ma), with species K. platyops;
- Paranthropus (3–1.2 Ma), with species P. aethiopicus, P. boisei, et P. robustus
A new proposed species Australopithecus deyiremeda is claimed to have been discovered living at the same time period of Au. afarensis. There is debate if Au. deyiremeda is a new species or is Au. afarensis.[146]Australopithecus prometheus, otherwise known as Little Foot has recently been dated at 3.67 million years old through a new dating technique, making the genus Australopithèque as old as afarensis.[147] Given the opposable big toe found on Little Foot, it seems that he was a good climber, and it is thought given the night predators of the region, he probably, like gorillas and chimpanzees, built a nesting platform at night, in the trees.
Evolution of genus Homo[[[[Éditer]
The earliest documented representative of the genus Homo est Homo habilis, which evolved around 2.8 million years ago,[116] and is arguably the earliest species for which there is positive evidence of the use of stone tools. The brains of these early hominins were about the same size as that of a chimpanzee, although it has been suggested that this was the time in which the human SRGAP2 gene doubled, producing a more rapid wiring of the frontal cortex. During the next million years a process of rapid encephalization occurred, and with the arrival of l’homo erectus et Homo ergaster in the fossil record, cranial capacity had doubled to 850 cm3.[148] (Such an increase in human brain size is equivalent to each generation having 125,000 more neurons than their parents.) It is believed that l’homo erectus et Homo ergaster were the first to use fire and complex tools, and were the first of the hominin line to leave Africa, spreading throughout Africa, Asia, and Europe between 1.3 to 1.8 million years ago.
According to the recent African origin of modern humans theory, modern humans evolved in Africa possibly from Homo heidelbergensis, Homo rhodesiensis ou Homo antecessor and migrated out of the continent some 50,000 to 100,000 years ago, gradually replacing local populations of l’homo erectus, Denisova hominins, Homo floresiensis, Homo luzonensis et Homo neanderthalensis.[150][151][152][153][154]Archaic Homo sapiens, the forerunner of anatomically modern humans, evolved in the Middle Paleolithic between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago.[155][156][157] Recent DNA evidence suggests that several haplotypes of Neanderthal origin are present among all non-African populations, and Neanderthals and other hominins, such as Denisovans, may have contributed up to 6% of their genome to present-day humans, suggestive of a limited interbreeding between these species.[93][158][96] The transition to behavioral modernity with the development of symbolic culture, language, and specialized lithic technology happened around 50,000 years ago, according to some anthropologists,[159] although others point to evidence that suggests that a gradual change in behavior took place over a longer time span.[160]
Homo sapiens is the only extant species of its genus, Homo. While some (extinct) Homo species might have been ancestors of Homo sapiens, many, perhaps most, were likely « cousins », having speciated away from the ancestral hominin line.[161][162] There is yet no consensus as to which of these groups should be considered a separate species and which should be a subspecies; this may be due to the dearth of fossils or to the slight differences used to classify species in the genus Homo.[162] The Sahara pump theory (describing an occasionally passable « wet » Sahara desert) provides one possible explanation of the early variation in the genus Homo.
Based on archaeological and paleontological evidence, it has been possible to infer, to some extent, the ancient dietary practices[35] of various Homo species and to study the role of diet in physical and behavioral evolution within Homo.[32][163][164][165][166]
Some anthropologists and archaeologists subscribe to the Toba catastrophe theory, which posits that the supereruption of Lake Toba on Sumatran island in Indonesia some 70,000 years ago caused global consequences,[167] killing the majority of humans and creating a population bottleneck that affected the genetic inheritance of all humans today.[168] The genetic and archaeological evidence for this remains in question however.[169]
H. habilis et H. gautengensis[[[[Éditer]
Homo habilis lived from about 2.8[116] to 1.4 Ma. The species evolved in South and East Africa in the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene, 2.5–2 Ma, when it diverged from the australopithecines. Homo habilis had smaller molars and larger brains than the australopithecines, and made tools from stone and perhaps animal bones. One of the first known hominins was nicknamed ‘handy man’ by discoverer Louis Leakey due to its association with stone tools. Some scientists have proposed moving this species out of Homo and into Australopithèque due to the morphology of its skeleton being more adapted to living on trees rather than to moving on two legs like Homo sapiens.[170]
In May 2010, a new species, Homo gautengensis, was discovered in South Africa.[171]
H. rudolfensis et H. georgicus[[[[Éditer]
These are proposed species names for fossils from about 1.9–1.6 Ma, whose relation to Homo habilis is not yet clear.
- Homo rudolfensis refers to a single, incomplete skull from Kenya. Scientists have suggested that this was another Homo habilis, but this has not been confirmed.[172]
- Homo georgicus, from Georgia, may be an intermediate form between Homo habilis et l’homo erectus,[173] or a subspecies of l’homo erectus.[174]
H. ergaster et H. erectus[[[[Éditer]
The first fossils of l’homo erectus were discovered by Dutch physician Eugene Dubois in 1891 on the Indonesian island of Java. He originally named the material Anthropopithecus erectus (1892–1893, considered at this point as a chimpanzee-like fossil primate) and Pithecanthropus erectus (1893–1894, changing his mind as of based on its morphology, which he considered to be intermediate between that of humans and apes).[175] Years later, in the 20th century, the German physician and paleoanthropologist Franz Weidenreich (1873–1948) compared in detail the characters of Dubois’ Java Man, then named Pithecanthropus erectus, with the characters of the Peking Man, then named Sinanthropus pekinensis. Weidenreich concluded in 1940 that because of their anatomical similarity with modern humans it was necessary to gather all these specimens of Java and China in a single species of the genus Homo, the species l’homo erectus.[176][177]l’homo erectus lived from about 1.8 Ma to about 70,000 years ago – which would indicate that they were probably wiped out by the Toba catastrophe; however, nearby Homo floresiensis survived it. The early phase of l’homo erectus, from 1.8 to 1.25 Ma, is considered by some to be a separate species, Homo ergaster, or as Homo erectus ergaster, a subspecies of l’homo erectus.
In Africa in the Early Pleistocene, 1.5–1 Ma, some populations of Homo habilis are thought to have evolved larger brains and to have made more elaborate stone tools; these differences and others are sufficient for anthropologists to classify them as a new species, l’homo erectus—in Africa.[178] The evolution of locking knees and the movement of the foramen magnum are thought to be likely drivers of the larger population changes. This species also may have used fire to cook meat. Richard Wrangham suggests that the fact that Homo seems to have been ground dwelling, with reduced intestinal length, smaller dentition, « and swelled our brains to their current, horrendously fuel-inefficient size »,[179] suggest that control of fire and releasing increased nutritional value through cooking was the key adaptation that separated Homo from tree-sleeping Australopithecines.[180]
A famous example of l’homo erectus is Peking Man; others were found in Asia (notably in Indonesia), Africa, and Europe. Many paleoanthropologists now use the term Homo ergaster for the non-Asian forms of this group, and reserve l’homo erectus only for those fossils that are found in Asia and meet certain skeletal and dental requirements which differ slightly from H. ergaster.
H. cepranensis et H. antecessor[[[[Éditer]
These are proposed as species that may be intermediate between H. erectus et H. heidelbergensis.
- H. antecessor is known from fossils from Spain and England that are dated 1.2 Ma–500 ka.[181][182]
- H. cepranensis refers to a single skull cap from Italy, estimated to be about 800,000 years old.[183]
H. heidelbergensis[[[[Éditer]
H. heidelbergensis (« Heidelberg Man ») lived from about 800,000 to about 300,000 years ago. Also proposed as Homo sapiens heidelbergensis ou Homo sapiens paleohungaricus.[184]
H. rhodesiensis, and the Gawis cranium[[[[Éditer]
- H. rhodesiensis, estimated to be 300,000–125,000 years old. Most current researchers place Rhodesian Man within the group of Homo heidelbergensis, though other designations such as archaic Homo sapiens et Homo sapiens rhodesiensis have been proposed.
- In February 2006 a fossil, the Gawis cranium, was found which might possibly be a species intermediate between H. erectus et H. sapiens or one of many evolutionary dead ends. The skull from Gawis, Ethiopia, is believed to be 500,000–250,000 years old. Only summary details are known, and the finders have not yet released a peer-reviewed study. Gawis man’s facial features suggest its being either an intermediate species or an example of a « Bodo man » female.[185]
Neanderthal and Denisovan[[[[Éditer]
Homo neanderthalensis, alternatively designated as Homo sapiens neanderthalensis,[186] lived in Europe and Asia from 400,000[187] to about 28,000 years ago.[188]
There are a number of clear anatomical differences between anatomically modern humans (AMH) and Neanderthal populations. Many of these relate to the superior adaptation to cold environments possessed by the Neanderthal populations. Their surface to volume ratio is an extreme version of that found amongst Inuit populations, indicating that they were less inclined to lose body heat than were AMH. From brain Endocasts, Neanderthals also had significantly larger brains. This would seem to indicate that the intellectual superiority of AMH populations may be questionable. More recent research by Eiluned Pearce, Chris Stringer, R.I.M. Dunbar, however, have shown important differences in brain architecture. For example, in both the orbital chamber size and in the size of the occipital lobe, the larger size suggests that the Neanderthal had a better visual acuity than modern humans. This would give a superior vision in the inferior light conditions found in Glacial Europe. It also seems that the higher body mass of Neanderthals had a correspondingly larger brain mass required for body care and control.[189]
The Neanderthal populations seem to have been physically superior to AMH populations. These differences may have been sufficient to give Neanderthal populations an environmental superiority to AMH populations from 75,000 to 45,000 years BP. With these differences, Neanderthal brains show a smaller area was available for social functioning. Plotting group size possible from endocranial volume, suggests that AMH populations (minus occipital lobe size), had a Dunbars number of 144 possible relationships. Neanderthal populations seem to have been limited to about 120 individuals. This would show up in a larger number of possible mates for AMH humans, with increased risks of inbreeding amongst Neanderthal populations. It also suggests that humans had larger trade catchment areas than Neanderthals (confirmed in the distribution of stone tools). With larger populations, social and technological innovations were easier to fix in human populations, which may have all contributed to the fact that modern Homo sapiens replaced the Neanderthal populations by 28,000 BP.[189]
Earlier evidence from sequencing mitochondrial DNA suggested that no significant gene flow occurred between H. neanderthalensis et H. sapiens, and that the two were separate species that shared a common ancestor about 660,000 years ago.[190][191][192] However, a sequencing of the Neanderthal genome in 2010 indicated that Neanderthals did indeed interbreed with anatomically modern humans environ 45,000 to 80,000 years ago (at the approximate time that modern humans migrated out from Africa, but before they dispersed into Europe, Asia and elsewhere).[193] The genetic sequencing of a 40,000-year-old human skeleton from Romania showed that 11% of its genome was Neanderthal, and it was estimated that the individual had a Neanderthal ancestor 4–6 generations previously,[194] in addition to a contribution from earlier interbreeding in the Middle East. Though this interbred Romanian population seems not to have been ancestral to modern humans, the finding indicates that interbreeding happened repeatedly.[195]
All modern non-African humans have about 1% to 4% or, according to more recent data, about 1.5% to 2.6% of their DNA derived from Neanderthal DNA,[92][193][94] and this finding is consistent with recent studies indicating that the divergence of some human alleles dates to one Ma, although the interpretation of these studies has been questioned.[196][197] Neanderthals and Homo sapiens could have co-existed in Europe for as long as 10,000 years, during which human populations exploded vastly outnumbering Neanderthals, possibly outcompeting them by sheer numerical strength.[198]
In 2008, archaeologists working at the site of Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains of Siberia uncovered a small bone fragment from the fifth finger of a juvenile member of Denisovans.[199] Artifacts, including a bracelet, excavated in the cave at the same level were carbon dated to around 40,000 BP. As DNA had survived in the fossil fragment due to the cool climate of the Denisova Cave, both mtDNA and nuclear DNA were sequenced.[93][200]
While the divergence point of the mtDNA was unexpectedly deep in time,[201] the full genomic sequence suggested the Denisovans belonged to the same lineage as Neanderthals, with the two diverging shortly after their line split from the lineage that gave rise to modern humans.[93] Modern humans are known to have overlapped with Neanderthals in Europe and the Near East for possibly more than 40,000 years,[202] and the discovery raises the possibility that Neanderthals, Denisovans, and modern humans may have co-existed and interbred. The existence of this distant branch creates a much more complex picture of humankind during the Late Pleistocene than previously thought.[200][203] Evidence has also been found that as much as 6% of the DNA of some modern Melanesians derive from Denisovans, indicating limited interbreeding in Southeast Asia.[95][204]
Alleles thought to have originated in Neanderthals and Denisovans have been identified at several genetic loci in the genomes of modern humans outside of Africa. HLA haplotypes from Denisovans and Neanderthal represent more than half the HLA alleles of modern Eurasians,[96] indicating strong positive selection for these introgressed alleles. Corinne Simoneti at Vanderbilt University, in Nashville and her team have found from medical records of 28,000 people of European descent that the presence of Neanderthal DNA segments may be associated with a likelihood to suffer depression more frequently.[205]
The flow of genes from Neanderthal populations to modern humans was not all one way. Sergi Castellano of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, Germany, has in 2016 reported that while Denisovan and Neanderthal genomes are more related to each other than they are to us, Siberian Neanderthal genomes show similarity to the modern human gene pool, more so than to European Neanderthal populations. The evidence suggests that the Neanderthal populations interbred with modern humans possibly 100,000 years ago, probably somewhere in the Near East.[206]
Studies of a Neanderthal child at Gibraltar show from brain development and teeth eruption that Neanderthal children may have matured more rapidly than is the case for Homo sapiens.[207]
H. floresiensis[[[[Éditer]
H. floresiensis, which lived from approximately 190,000 to 50,000 years before present (BP), has been nicknamed the hobbit for its small size, possibly a result of insular dwarfism.[208]H. floresiensis is intriguing both for its size and its age, being an example of a recent species of the genus Homo that exhibits derived traits not shared with modern humans. In other words, H. floresiensis shares a common ancestor with modern humans, but split from the modern human lineage and followed a distinct evolutionary path. The main find was a skeleton believed to be a woman of about 30 years of age. Found in 2003, it has been dated to approximately 18,000 years old. The living woman was estimated to be one meter in height, with a brain volume of just 380 cm3 (considered small for a chimpanzee and less than a third of the H. sapiens average of 1400 cm3).[208]
However, there is an ongoing debate over whether H. floresiensis is indeed a separate species.[209] Some scientists hold that H. floresiensis was a modern H. sapiens with pathological dwarfism.[210] This hypothesis is supported in part, because some modern humans who live on Flores, the Indonesian island where the skeleton was found, are pygmies. This, coupled with pathological dwarfism, could have resulted in a significantly diminutive human. The other major attack on H. floresiensis as a separate species is that it was found with tools only associated with H. sapiens.[210]
The hypothesis of pathological dwarfism, however, fails to explain additional anatomical features that are unlike those of modern humans (diseased or not) but much like those of ancient members of our genus. Aside from cranial features, these features include the form of bones in the wrist, forearm, shoulder, knees, and feet. Additionally, this hypothesis fails to explain the find of multiple examples of individuals with these same characteristics, indicating they were common to a large population, and not limited to one individual.[209]
H. luzonensis[[[[Éditer]
A small number of specimens from the island of Luzon, dated 50,000 to 67,000 years ago, have recently been assigned by their discoverers, based on dental characteristics, to a novel human species, H. luzonensis.[211]
H. sapiens[[[[Éditer]
H. sapiens (the adjective sapiens is Latin for « wise » or « intelligent ») emerged in Africa around 300,000 years ago, likely derived from Homo heidelbergensis or a related lineage.[212][213] In September 2019, scientists reported the computerized determination, based on 260 CT scans, of a virtual skull shape of the last common human ancestor to modern humans/H. sapiens, representative of the earliest modern humans, and suggested that modern humans arose between 260,000 and 350,000 years ago through a merging of populations in East and South Africa.[214][215]
Between 400,000 years ago and the second interglacial period in the Middle Pleistocene, around 250,000 years ago, the trend in intra-cranial volume expansion and the elaboration of stone tool technologies developed, providing evidence for a transition from H. erectus à H. sapiens. The direct evidence suggests there was a migration of H. erectus out of Africa, then a further speciation of H. sapiens de H. erectus in Africa. A subsequent migration (both within and out of Africa) eventually replaced the earlier dispersed H. erectus. This migration and origin theory is usually referred to as the « recent single-origin hypothesis » or « out of Africa » theory. H. sapiens interbred with archaic humans both in Africa and in Eurasia, in Eurasia notably with Neanderthals and Denisovans.[93][95]
The Toba catastrophe theory, which postulates a population bottleneck for H. sapiens about 70,000 years ago,[216] was controversial from its first proposal in the 1990s and by the 2010s had very little support.[217] Distinctive human genetic variability has arisen as the result of the founder effect, by archaic admixture and by recent evolutionary pressures.
Use of tools[[[[Éditer]
The use of tools has been interpreted as a sign of intelligence, and it has been theorized that tool use may have stimulated certain aspects of human evolution, especially the continued expansion of the human brain.[218] Paleontology has yet to explain the expansion of this organ over millions of years despite being extremely demanding in terms of energy consumption. The brain of a modern human consumes about 13 watts (260 kilocalories per day), a fifth of the body’s resting power consumption.[219] Increased tool use would allow hunting for energy-rich meat products, and would enable processing more energy-rich plant products. Researchers have suggested that early hominins were thus under evolutionary pressure to increase their capacity to create and use tools.[220]
Precisely when early humans started to use tools is difficult to determine, because the more primitive these tools are (for example, sharp-edged stones) the more difficult it is to decide whether they are natural objects or human artifacts.[218] There is some evidence that the australopithecines (4 Ma) may have used broken bones as tools, but this is debated.[221]
Many species make and use tools, but it is the human genus that dominates the areas of making and using more complex tools. The oldest known tools are flakes from West Turkana, Kenya, which date to 3.3 million years ago.[222] The next oldest stone tools are from Gona, Ethiopia, and are considered the beginning of the Oldowan technology. These tools date to about 2.6 million years ago.[223] UNE Homo fossil was found near some Oldowan tools, and its age was noted at 2.3 million years old, suggesting that maybe the Homo species did indeed create and use these tools. It is a possibility but does not yet represent solid evidence.[224] The third metacarpal styloid process enables the hand bone to lock into the wrist bones, allowing for greater amounts of pressure to be applied to the wrist and hand from a grasping thumb and fingers. It allows humans the dexterity and strength to make and use complex tools. This unique anatomical feature separates humans from apes and other nonhuman primates, and is not seen in human fossils older than 1.8 million years.[225]
Bernard Wood noted that Paranthropus co-existed with the early Homo species in the area of the « Oldowan Industrial Complex » over roughly the same span of time. Although there is no direct evidence which identifies Paranthropus as the tool makers, their anatomy lends to indirect evidence of their capabilities in this area. Most paleoanthropologists agree that the early Homo species were indeed responsible for most of the Oldowan tools found. They argue that when most of the Oldowan tools were found in association with human fossils, Homo was always present, but Paranthropus was not.[224]
In 1994, Randall Susman used the anatomy of opposable thumbs as the basis for his argument that both the Homo et Paranthropus species were toolmakers. He compared bones and muscles of human and chimpanzee thumbs, finding that humans have 3 muscles which are lacking in chimpanzees. Humans also have thicker metacarpals with broader heads, allowing more precise grasping than the chimpanzee hand can perform. Susman posited that modern anatomy of the human opposable thumb is an evolutionary response to the requirements associated with making and handling tools and that both species were indeed toolmakers.[224]
Stone tools[[[[Éditer]
Stone tools are first attested around 2.6 million years ago, when hominins in Eastern Africa used so-called core tools, choppers made out of round cores that had been split by simple strikes.[226] This marks the beginning of the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age; its end is taken to be the end of the last Ice Age, around 10,000 years ago. The Paleolithic is subdivided into the Lower Paleolithic (Early Stone Age), ending around 350,000–300,000 years ago, the Middle Paleolithic (Middle Stone Age), until 50,000–30,000 years ago, and the Upper Paleolithic, (Late Stone Age), 50,000–10,000 years ago.
Archaeologists working in the Great Rift Valley in Kenya have discovered the oldest known stone tools in the world. Dated to around 3.3 million years ago, the implements are some 700,000 years older than stone tools from Ethiopia that previously held this distinction.[222][227][228][229]
The period from 700,000 to 300,000 years ago is also known as the Acheulean, when H. ergaster (ou erectus) made large stone hand axes out of flint and quartzite, at first quite rough (Early Acheulian), later « retouched » by additional, more-subtle strikes at the sides of the flakes. After 350,000 BP the more refined so-called Levallois technique was developed, a series of consecutive strikes, by which scrapers, slicers (« racloirs »), needles, and flattened needles were made.[226] Finally, after about 50,000 BP, ever more refined and specialized flint tools were made by the Neanderthals and the immigrant Cro-Magnons (knives, blades, skimmers). Bone tools were also made by H. sapiens in Africa by 90–70,000 years ago[230][231] and are also known from early H. sapiens sites in Eurasia by about 50,000 years ago.
Transition to behavioral modernity[[[[Éditer]
Until about 50,000–40,000 years ago, the use of stone tools seems to have progressed stepwise. Each phase (H. habilis, H. ergaster, H. neanderthalensis) started at a higher level than the previous one, but after each phase started, further development was slow. Currently paleoanthropologists are debating whether these Homo species possessed some or many of the cultural and behavioral traits associated with modern humans such as language, complex symbolic thinking, technological creativity etc. It seems that they were culturally conservative maintaining simple technologies and foraging patterns over very long periods.
Around 50,000 BP, modern human culture started to evolve more rapidly. The transition to behavioral modernity has been characterized by some as a « Great Leap Forward »,[232] or as the « Upper Palaeolithic Revolution »,[233] due to the sudden appearance of distinctive signs of modern behavior and big game hunting[103] in the archaeological record. Evidence of behavioral modernity significantly earlier also exists from Africa, with older evidence of abstract imagery, widened subsistence strategies, more sophisticated tools and weapons, and other « modern » behaviors, and many scholars have recently argued that the transition to modernity occurred sooner than previously believed.[234][235][236][237] Some other scholars consider the transition to have been more gradual, noting that some features had already appeared among archaic African Homo sapiens since 300–200,000 years ago.[238][239][240][241][242] Recent evidence suggests that the Australian Aboriginal population separated from the African population 75,000 years ago, and that they made a sea journey of up to 160 km 60,000 years ago, which may diminish the evidence of the Upper Paleolithic Revolution.[243]
Modern humans started burying their dead, using animal hides to make clothing, hunting with more sophisticated techniques (such as using trapping pits or driving animals off cliffs), and engaging in cave painting.[244] As human culture advanced, different populations of humans introduced novelty to existing technologies: artifacts such as fish hooks, buttons, and bone needles show signs of variation among different populations of humans, something that had not been seen in human cultures prior to 50,000 BP. Typically, H. neanderthalensis populations do not vary in their technologies, although the Chatelperronian assemblages have been found to be Neanderthal innovations produced as a result of exposure to the Homo sapiens Aurignacian technologies.[245]
Among concrete examples of modern human behavior, anthropologists include specialization of tools, use of jewellery and images (such as cave drawings), organization of living space, rituals (for example, burials with grave gifts), specialized hunting techniques, exploration of less hospitable geographical areas, and barter trade networks. Debate continues as to whether a « revolution » led to modern humans (« the big bang of human consciousness »), or whether the evolution was more « gradual ».[160]
Recent and ongoing human evolution[[[[Éditer]
Anatomically modern human populations continue to evolve, as they are affected by both natural selection and genetic drift. Although selection pressure on some traits, such as resistance to smallpox, has decreased in the modern age, humans are still undergoing natural selection for many other traits. Some of these are due to specific environmental pressures, while others are related to lifestyle changes since the development of agriculture (10,000 years ago), urbanization (5,000), and industrialization (250 years ago). It has been argued that human evolution has accelerated since the development of agriculture 10,000 years ago and civilization some 5,000 years ago, resulting, it is claimed, in substantial genetic differences between different current human populations,[246] and more recent research indicates that for some traits, the developments and innovations of human culture have driven a new form of selection that coexists with, and in some cases has largely replaced, natural selection.[247]
Particularly conspicuous is variation in superficial characteristics, such as Afro-textured hair, or the recent evolution of light skin and blond hair in some populations, which are attributed to differences in climate. Particularly strong selective pressures have resulted in high-altitude adaptation in humans, with different ones in different isolated populations. Studies of the genetic basis show that some developed very recently, with Tibetans evolving over 3,000 years to have high proportions of an allele of EPAS1 that is adaptive to high altitudes.
Other evolution is related to endemic diseases: the presence of malaria selects for sickle cell trait (the heterozygous form of sickle cell gene), while in the absence of malaria, the health effects of sickle-cell anemia select against this trait. For another example, the population at risk of the severe debilitating disease kuru has significant over-representation of an immune variant of the prion protein gene G127V versus non-immune alleles. The frequency of this genetic variant is due to the survival of immune persons.[248][249] Some reported trends remain unexplained and the subject of ongoing research in the novel field of evolutionary medicine: polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) reduces fertility and thus is expected to be subject to extremely strong negative selection, but its relative commonality in human populations suggests a counteracting selection pressure. The identity of that pressure remains the subject of some debate.[250]
Recent human evolution related to agriculture includes genetic resistance to infectious disease that has appeared in human populations by crossing the species barrier from domesticated animals,[251] as well as changes in metabolism due to changes in diet, such as lactase persistence.
Culturally-driven evolution can defy the expectations of natural selection: while human populations experience some pressure that drives a selection for producing children at younger ages, the advent of effective contraception, higher education, and changing social norms have driven the observed selection in the opposite direction.[252] However, culturally-driven selection need not necessarily work counter or in opposition to natural selection: some proposals to explain the high rate of recent human brain expansion indicate a kind of feedback whereupon the brain’s increased social learning efficiency encourages cultural developments that in turn encourage more efficiency, which drive more complex cultural developments that demand still-greater efficiency, and so forth.[253] Culturally-driven evolution has an advantage in that in addition to the genetic effects, it can be observed also in the archaeological record: the development of stone tools across the Palaeolithic period connects to culturally-driven cognitive development in the form of skill acquisition supported by the culture and the development of increasingly complex technologies and the cognitive ability to elaborate them.[254]
In contemporary times, since industrialization, some trends have been observed: for instance, menopause is evolving to occur later.[255] Other reported trends appear to include lengthening of the human reproductive period and reduction in cholesterol levels, blood glucose and blood pressure in some populations.[255]
Species list[[[[Éditer]
This list is in chronological order across the table by genre. Some species/subspecies names are well-established, and some are less established – especially in genus Homo. Please see articles for more information.
Voir également[[[[Éditer]
- ^ Ponginae is not to be confused with Pongidae, an obsolete family which grouped together orangutans, gorillas and chimps, to separate them from humans.
- ^ The Latin word which refers to adult
males only is « vir » - ^ See the Binomial nomenclature and Systema Naturae articles.
Les références[[[[Éditer]
- ^ Brian K. Hall; Benedikt Hallgrímsson (2011). Strickberger’s Evolution. Éditeurs Jones et Bartlett. p. 488. ISBN 978-1-4496-6390-2.
- ^ une b c Rogers Ackermann, Rebecca; Mackay, Alex; Arnold, Michael L (October 2015). « The Hybrid Origin of « Modern » Humans ». Evolutionary Biology. 43 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1007/s11692-015-9348-1. S2CID 14329491.
- ^ une b Antrosio, Jason (August 23, 2018). « Denisovans and Neandertals: Rethinking Species Boundaries ». Living Anthropologically.
- ^ une b Human Hybrids. (PDF). Michael F. Hammer. Américain scientifique, May 2013.
- ^ une b Yong, Ed (July 2011). « Mosaic humans, the hybrid species ». Nouveau scientifique. 211 (2823): 34–38. Bibcode:2011NewSc.211…34Y. doi:10.1016/S0262-4079(11)61839-3.
- ^ Heng, Henry H.Q. (May 2009). « The genome-centric concept: resynthesis of evolutionary theory ». BioEssays. 31 (5): 512–525. doi:10.1002/bies.200800182. ISSN 0265-9247. PMID 19334004. S2CID 1336952.
- ^ Tyson, Peter (July 1, 2008). « Meet Your Ancestors ». Nova ScienceNow. PBS; WGBH Educational Foundation. Récupéré 18 avril 2015.
- ^ Planck 2012
- ^ Boyd & Silk 2003
- ^ Brues & Snow 1965, pp. 1–39
- ^ Brunet, Michel; Guy, Franck; Pilbeam, David; et al. (July 11, 2002). « A new hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad, Central Africa ». La nature. 418 (6894): 145–151. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..145B. doi:10.1038/nature00879. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 12110880. S2CID 1316969.
- ^ White, T. D.; Asfaw, B.; Beyene, Y.; Haile-Selassie, Y.; Lovejoy, C. O.; Suwa, G.; Woldegabriel, G. (2009). « Ardipithecus ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids ». Science. 326 (5949): 75–86. Bibcode:2009Sci…326…75W. doi:10.1126/science.1175802. PMID 19810190. S2CID 20189444.
- ^ une b Kwang Hyun, Ko (2015). « Origins of Bipedalism ». Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 58 (6): 929–934. arXiv:1508.02739. Bibcode:2015arXiv150802739K. doi:10.1590/S1516-89132015060399. S2CID 761213.
- ^ une b DeSalle & Tattersall 2008, p. 146
- ^ une b Curry 2008, pp. 106–109
- ^ « Study Identifies Energy Efficiency As Reason For Evolution Of Upright Walking ». ScienceDaily. Rockville, MD: ScienceDaily, LLC. July 17, 2007. Récupéré 9 avril 2015.
- ^ Sockol, Michael D.; Raichlen, David A.; Pontzer, Herman (July 24, 2007). « Chimpanzee locomotor energetics and the origin of human bipedalism ». Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. ETATS-UNIS. 104 (30): 12265–12269. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10412265S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0703267104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1941460. PMID 17636134.
- ^ David-Barrett, T.; Dunbar, R.I.M. (2016). « Bipedality and Hair-loss Revisited: The Impact of Altitude and Activity Scheduling ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 94: 72–82. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.006. PMC 4874949. PMID 27178459.
- ^ Aiello & Dean 1990
- ^ Kondo 1985
- ^ une b Srivastava 2009, p. 87
- ^ Strickberger 2000, pp. 475–476
- ^ Trevathan 2011, p. 20
- ^ Zuk, Marlene (2014), « Paleofantasy: What Evolution Really Tells Us About Sex, Diet, and How We Live » (W.W. Norton & Company)
- ^ Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer (2011), « Mothers and Others: The Evolutionary Origins of Mutual Understanding » (Harvard Uni Press)
- ^ Wayman, Erin (August 19, 2013). « Killer whales, grandmas and what men want: Evolutionary biologists consider menopause ». Science News. ISSN 0036-8423. Récupéré April 24, 2015.
- ^ une b Schoenemann, P. Thomas (October 2006). « Evolution of the Size and Functional Areas of the Human Brain ». Annual Review of Anthropology. 35: 379–406. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.35.081705.123210. ISSN 0084-6570. S2CID 7611321.
- ^ Brown, Graham; Fairfax, Stephanie; Sarao, Nidhi. « Tree of Life Web Project: Human Evolution ». www.tolweb.org.
- ^ Park, Min S.; Nguyen, Andrew D.; Aryan, Henry E.; et al. (March 2007). « Evolution of the human brain: changing brain size and the fossil record ». Neurochirurgie. 60 (3): 555–562. doi:10.1227/01.NEU.0000249284.54137.32. ISSN 0148-396X. PMID 17327801. S2CID 19610624.
- ^ Bruner, Emiliano (December 2007). « Cranial shape and size variation in human evolution: structural and functional perspectives ». Child’s Nervous System. 23 (12): 1357–1365. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.391.288. doi:10.1007/s00381-007-0434-2. ISSN 0256-7040. PMID 17680251. S2CID 16163137.
- ^ Potts, Richard (October 2012). « Evolution and Environmental Change in Early Human Prehistory ». Annual Review of Anthropology. 41: 151–167. doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145754. ISSN 0084-6570.
- ^ une b Leonard, William R.; Snodgrass, J. Josh; Robertson, Marcia L. (August 2007). « Effects of brain evolution on human nutrition and metabolism ». Annual Review of Nutrition. 27: 311–327. doi:10.1146/annurev.nutr.27.061406.093659. ISSN 0199-9885. PMID 17439362. S2CID 18869516.
- ^ McBroom, Patricia (June 14, 1999). « Meat-eating was essential for human evolution, says UC Berkeley anthropologist specializing in diet » (Communiqué de presse). Berkeley: University of California Press. Récupéré April 25, 2015.
- ^ Mann, Neil (September 2007). « Meat in the human diet: An anthropological perspective ». Nutrition & Dietetics. 64 (Supplement s4): S102–S107. doi:10.1111/j.1747-0080.2007.00194.x. ISSN 1747-0080. Récupéré 31 janvier 2012.
- ^ une b Zimmer, Carl (August 13, 2015). « For Evolving Brains, a ‘Paleo’ Diet Full of Carbs ». Le New York Times. Récupéré August 14, 2015.
- ^ Organ, Chris; Nunn, Charles L.; Machanda, Zarin; Wrangham, Richard W. (August 30, 2011). « Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo« . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. ETATS-UNIS. 108 (35): 14555–14559. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10814555O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107806108. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3167533. PMID 21873223.
- ^ David-Barrett, T.; Dunbar, R.I.M. (2013). « Processing Power Limits Social Group Size: Computational Evidence for the Cognitive Costs of Sociality ». Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 280 (1765): 20131151. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.1151. PMC 3712454. PMID 23804623.
- ^ Bown & Rose 1987
- ^ Barton, Robert A.; Venditti, Chris (October 20, 2014). « Rapid Evolution of the Cerebellum in Humans and Other Great Apes ». Current Biology. 24 (20): 2440–2444. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.08.056. ISSN 0960-9822. PMID 25283776. S2CID 5041106.
- ^ Starowicz-Filip, Anna; Milczarek, Olga; Kwiatkowski, Stanisław; et al. (2013). « Cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome CCAS – a case report ». Archives of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy. 15 (3): 57–64. doi:10.12740/APP/18666. OCLC 220954272.
- ^ Feng Yu; Qing-jun Jiang; Xi-yan Sun; et al. (August 22, 2014). « A new case of complete primary cerebellar agenesis: clinical and imaging findings in a living patient ». Cerveau. 138 (Pt 6): e353. doi:10.1093/brain/awu239. ISSN 1460-2156. PMC 4614135. PMID 25149410.
- ^ Weaver, Anne H. (March 8, 2005). « Reciprocal evolution of the cerebellum and neocortex in fossil humans ». Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. ETATS-UNIS. 102 (10): 3576–3580. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.3576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0500692102. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 553338. PMID 15731345.
- ^ Klein, Stefan (2014). Survival of the Nicest. The Experiment. ISBN 978-1615190904.
- ^ Sallet, J.; Mars, R.B.; Noonan, M.P.; Andersson, J.L.; O’Reilly, J.X.; Jbabdi, S.; Croxson, P.L.; Jenkinson, M.; Miller, K.L. (November 4, 2011). « Social Network Size Affects Neural Circuits in Macaques ». Science. 334 (6056): 697–700. Bibcode:2011Sci…334..697S. doi:10.1126/science.1210027. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 22053054. S2CID 206536017.
- ^ Dunbar, R.I.M. (1992). « Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 22 (6): 469–493. doi:10.1016/0047-2484(92)90081-j.
- ^ Dávid-Barrett, T.; Dunbar, R.I.M. (August 22, 2013). « Processing power limits social group size: computational evidence for the cognitive costs of sociality ». Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 280 (1765): 20131151. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.1151. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 3712454. PMID 23804623.
- ^ Shultz, Susanne; Dunbar, Robin (December 14, 2010). « Encephalization is not a universal macroevolutionary phenomenon in mammals but is associated with sociality ». Actes de l’Académie nationale des sciences. 107 (50): 21582–21586. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10721582S. doi:10.1073/pnas.1005246107. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3003036. PMID 21098277.
- ^ Richard, Potts (1998). « Environmental Hypotheses of Hominin Evolution ». Journal américain d’anthropologie physique. 107: 93–136. doi:10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(1998)107:27+<93::aid-ajpa5>3.0.co;2-x.
- ^ Kaplan, Hillard; Hill, Kim; Lancaster, Jane; Hurtado, Magdelena (August 16, 2000). « A Theory of Human Life History Evolution: Diet, Intelligence, and Longevity » (PDF). Evolutionary Anthropology. 9 (4): 156–185. doi:10.1002/1520-6505(2000)9:4<156::AID-EVAN5>3.0.CO;2-7.
- ^ Tanner, Nancy Makepeace; Tanner (1981). On Becoming Human. CUP Archive. p. 202. ISBN 978-0-521-28028-0.
- ^ Reno, Philip L.; Lovejoy, C. Owen (April 28, 2015). « From Lucy to Kadanuumuu: balanced analyses ofAustralopithecus afarensisassemblages confirm only moderate skeletal dimorphism ». PeerJ. 3: e925. doi:10.7717/peerj.925. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 4419524. PMID 25945314.
- ^ Lovejoy, C. Owen (October 2, 2009). « Reexamining Human Origins in Light of Ardipithecus ramidus » (PDF). Science. 326 (5949): 74–74e8. Bibcode:2009Sci…326…74L. doi:10.1126/science.1175834. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 19810200. S2CID 42790876.
- ^ Young, Richard W (January 2003). « Evolution of the human hand: the role of throwing and clubbing ». Journal of Anatomy. 202 (1): 165–174. doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2003.00144.x. ISSN 0021-8782. PMC 1571064. PMID 12587931.
- ^ une b Miriam Ittyerah (2013). Hand Preference and Hand Ability: Evidence from studies in Haptic Cognition. Éditions John Benjamins. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-9027271648.
- ^ Frank R. Wilson. « The Hand How Its Use Shapes the Brain, Language, and Human Culture ». Le New York Times. Livres du Panthéon. Récupéré 2 juillet 2017.
- ^ Pontzer, Herman (2016). « Metabolic acceleration and the evolution of human brain size and life history ». La nature. 533 (7603): 390–392. Bibcode:2016Natur.533..390P. doi:10.1038/nature17654. PMC 4942851. PMID 27144364.
- ^ American Heritage Dictionaries (editors) 2006
- ^ « Nested Hierarchies, the Order of Nature: Carolus Linnaeus ». Understanding Evolution: The History of Evolutionary Thought. The University of California at Berkeley. Récupéré 2 août 2019.
- ^ Darwin, Charles (1859). « On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life ». La nature (Full image view 1st ed.). 5 (121): 367–404. Bibcode:1872Natur…5..318B. doi:10.1038/005318a0. PMC 5184128. PMID 30164232. S2CID 4042779.
- ^ Darwin 1981
- ^ Montgomery 1988, pp. 95–96
- ^ Shipman, Pat; Storm, Paul (2002). « Missing links: Eugène Dubois and the origins of paleoanthropology ». Anthropologie évolutive: problèmes, actualités et critiques. 11 (3): 108–116. doi:10.1002/evan.10021. ISSN 1520-6505. S2CID 84889438.
- ^ Dart, Raymond (February 7, 1925). « Australopithecus africanus: The Man-Ape of South Africa ». La nature. 115 (2884): 195–199. Bibcode:1925Natur.115..195D. doi:10.1038/115195a0. ISSN 0028-0836. S2CID 4142569.
- ^ Johanson & Edey 1981, pp. 20–22, 184–185
- ^ Cartmill, Matt; Fred H. Smith; Kaye B. Brown (2009). The Human Lineage. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-471-21491-5.
- ^ Johanson & Edey 1981, p. 22
- ^ Shreeve, Jamie (July 2010). « The Evolutionary Road ». National Geographic. ISSN 0027-9358. Récupéré May 28, 2015.
- ^ Berger, LR; et al. (2015). « Homo naledi, a new species of the genus Homo from the Dinaledi Chamber, South Africa ». eLife. 4. doi:10.7554/eLife.09560. PMC 4559886. PMID 26354291.
- ^ une b Shreeve, Jamie (September 10, 2015). « This Face Changes the Human Story. But How? ». Nouvelles National Geographic. Récupéré September 10, 2015.
- ^ Dirks et al. (2017): between 335 and 236 ka. The lower limit of 236 ka is due to optically stimulated luminescence dating of sediments with U-Th and palaeomagnetic analyses of flowstones; the upper limit of 335 ka is due to U-series and electron spin resonance (US-ESR) dating of two H. naledi teeth, to 253+82
−70 ka, for an estimated age of the fossils of 253+82
−17 ka. - ^ Dirks, Paul H.G.M.; Roberts, Eric M.; et al. (May 9, 2017). « The age of Homo naledi and associated sediments in the Rising Star Cave, South Africa ». eLife. 6: e24231. doi:10.7554/eLife.24231. PMC 5423772. PMID 28483040.
- Paul H.G.M. Dirks
- Eric M. Roberts
- Hannah Hilbert-Wolf
- Jan D. Kramers
- John Hawks
- Anthony Dosseto
- Mathieu Duval
- Marina Elliott
- Mary Evans
- Rainer Grün
- John Hellstrom
- Andy I.R. Herries
- Renaud Joannes-Boyau
- Tebogo V. Makhubela
- Christa J. Placzek
- Jessie Robbins
- Carl Spandler
- Jelle Wiersma
- Jon Woodhead
- Lee R. Berger
- ^ une b Sarich, V.M.; Wilson, A.C. (1967). « Immunological time scale for hominid evolution ». Science. 158 (3805): 1200–1204. Bibcode:1967Sci…158.1200S. doi:10.1126/science.158.3805.1200. PMID 4964406. S2CID 7349579.
- ^ M’charek 2005, p. 96
- ^ Trent 2005, p. 6
- ^ Wade, Nicholas (May 18, 2006). « Two Splits Between Human and Chimp Lines Suggested ». Le New York Times. Récupéré April 20, 2015.
- ^ Behar, Doron M.; Villems, Richard; Soodyall, Himla; et al. (May 9, 2008). « The Dawn of Human Matrilineal Diversity » (PDF). Journal américain de génétique humaine. 82 (5): 1130–1140. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.04.002. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 2427203. PMID 18439549. Récupéré April 20, 2015.
- ^ Templeton, Alan R. (2005). « Haplotype Trees and Modern Human Origins ». Journal américain d’anthropologie physique. 128 (Supplement 41 (Yearbook of Physical Anthropology)): 33–59. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20351. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 16369961.
- ^ Peter B. deMenocal, (2016) « Climate Shocks » (Scientific American Vol 25, No 4)
- ^ Barras, Colin (2016), « Stone Tools hint humans reached Asia much earlier » (New Scientist February 6, 2016)
- ^ Wolpoff, Milford H.; Hawks, John; Caspari, Rachel (May 2000). « Multiregional, Not Multiple Origins » (PDF). Journal américain d’anthropologie physique. 112 (1): 129–136. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(200005)112:1<129::AID-AJPA11>3.0.CO;2-K. hdl:2027.42/34270. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 10766948.
- ^ Wolpoff, Milford H.; Spuhler, James N.; Smith, Fred H.; et al. (August 12, 1988). « Modern Human Origins ». Science. 241 (4867): 772–774. Bibcode:1988Sci…241..772W. doi:10.1126/science.3136545. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 3136545.
- ^ Owen, James (July 18, 2007). « Modern Humans Came Out of Africa, ‘Definitive’ Study Says ». Nouvelles National Geographic. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. Récupéré May 14, 2011.
- ^ Stringer, Chris B.; Andrews, Peter (March 11, 1988). « Genetic and fossil evidence for the origin of modern humans ». Science. 239 (4845): 1263–1268. Bibcode:1988Sci…239.1263S. doi:10.1126/science.3125610. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 3125610. S2CID 39200956.
- ^ Webster 2010, p. 53
- ^ Ramachandran et al. 2010, p. 606
- ^ Kutty 2009, p. 40
- ^ Cann, Rebecca L.; Stoneking, Mark; Wilson, Allan C. (January 1, 1987). « Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution ». La nature. 325 (6099): 31–36. Bibcode:1987Natur.325…31C. doi:10.1038/325031a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 3025745. S2CID 4285418. Archivé de l’original on August 13, 2010. Récupéré 21 avril 2015.
- ^ Gill, Victoria (May 1, 2009). « Africa’s genetic secrets unlocked ». nouvelles de la BBC. London: BBC. Récupéré 8 juin 2011. The results were published in the online edition of the journal Science.
- ^ Leakey 1994, pp. 87–89
- ^ Jorde, Lynn B.; Bamshad, Michael; Rogers, Alan R. (February 1998). « Using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA markers to reconstruct human evolution ». BioEssays. 20 (2): 126–136. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(199802)20:2<126::AID-BIES5>3.0.CO;2-R. ISSN 0265-9247. PMID 9631658.
- ^ Wall, Jeffrey D.; Lohmueller, Kirk E.; Plagnol, Vincent (August 2009). « Detecting Ancient Admixture and Estimating Demographic Parameters in Multiple Human Populations ». Molecular Biology and Evolution. 26 (8): 1823–1827. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp096. ISSN 0737-4038. PMC 2734152. PMID 19420049.
- ^ une b c Green, Richard E.; Krause, Johannes; Briggs, Adrian W.; et al. (May 7, 2010). « A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome ». Science. 328 (5979): 710–722. Bibcode:2010Sci…328..710G. doi:10.1126/science.1188021. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 5100745. PMID 20448178.
- ^ une b c ré e F Reich, David; Green, Richard E.; Kircher, Martin; et al. (23 décembre 2010). « Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia ». La nature. 468 (7327): 1053–1060. Bibcode:2010Natur.468.1053R. doi:10.1038/nature09710. hdl:10230/25596. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 4306417. PMID 21179161.
- ^ une b Prüfer, K.; de Filippo, C.; Grote, S.; Mafessoni, F.; Korlević, P.; Hajdinjak, M.; et al. (2017). « A high-coverage Neandertal genome from Vindija Cave in Croatia ». Science. 358 (6363): 655–58. Bibcode:2017Sci…358..655P. doi:10.1126/science.aao1887. PMC 6185897. PMID 28982794.
- ^ une b c Reich, David; Patterson, Nick; Kircher, Martin; et al. (October 7, 2011). « Denisova Admixture and the First Modern Human Dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania ». Journal américain de génétique humaine. 89 (4): 516–528. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005. ISSN 0002-9297. PMC 3188841. PMID 21944045.
- ^ une b c Abi-Rached, Laurent; Jobin, Matthew J.; Kulkarni, Subhash; et al. (October 7, 2011). « The Shaping of Modern Human Immune Systems by Multiregional Admixture with Archaic Humans ». Science. 334 (6052): 89–94. Bibcode:2011Sci…334…89A. doi:10.1126/science.1209202. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 3677943. PMID 21868630.
- ^ Huertha Sanchez, Emilia et al. (2014), « Altitude adaptation in Tibetans caused by introgression of Denisovan-like DNA » (Nature Vol 512, August 14, 2014)
- ^ « Artificial intelligence applied to the genome identifies an unknown human ancestor ». ScienceDaily. Récupéré 17 janvier 2019.
- ^ une b c Lahr, Marta Mirazón; Petraglia, Mike; Stokes, Stephen; et al. « Searching for traces of the Southern Dispersal ». Leverhulme Centre for Human Evolutionary Studies. Cambridge: University of Cambridge. Archivé de l’original on May 10, 2012. Récupéré 21 avril 2015.
- ^ Simpson, Colin. DNA evidence suggests the whole world is a little bit Arab. The National. 16, June 2020. Archived at The Wayback Machine
- ^ Fernandes V, Alshamali F, Alves M, et al. The Arabian cradle: mitochondrial relicts of the first steps along the southern route out of Africa. Am J Hum Genet. 2012;90(2):347–355. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.12.010
- ^ Macaulay, Vincent; Hill, Catherine; Achilli, Alessandro; et al. (May 13, 2005). « Single, Rapid Coastal Settlement of Asia Revealed by Analysis of Complete Mitochondrial Genomes » (PDF). Science. 308 (5724): 1034–1036. Bibcode:2005Sci…308.1034M. doi:10.1126/science.1109792. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 15890885. S2CID 31243109.
- ^ une b Oppenheimer, Stephen (2012), « Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World » (Robinson; New Ed edition (March 1, 2012))
- ^ Posth C, Renaud G, Mittnik M, Drucker DG, Rougier H, Cupillard C, et al. (2016). « Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe ». Current Biology. 26 (6): 827–833. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.037. PMID 26853362. S2CID 140098861.
- ^ Karmin M, Saag L, Vicente M, Wilson Sayres MA, Järve M, Talas UG, et al. (April 2015). « A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture ». Genome Research. 25 (4): 459–66. doi:10.1101/gr.186684.114. PMC 4381518. PMID 25770088.
- ^ Haber M, Jones AL, Connell BA, Arciero E, Yang H, Thomas MG, et al. (August 2019). « A Rare Deep-Rooting D0 African Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup and Its Implications for the Expansion of Modern Humans Out of Africa ». Genetics. 212 (4): 1421–1428. doi:10.1534/genetics.119.302368. PMC 6707464. PMID 31196864.
- ^ Stanford, Allen & Antón 2009
- ^ une b Wood, Bernard A.; Richmond, Brian G. (July 2000). « Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology ». Journal of Anatomy. 197 (1): 19–60. doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x. ISSN 1469-7580. PMC 1468107. PMID 10999270.
- ^ Ajit, Varki; Nelson, David L. (October 2007). « Genomic Comparisons of Humans and Chimpanzees » (PDF). Annual Review of Anthropology. 36: 191–209. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.36.081406.094339. ISSN 0084-6570. Récupéré 26 avril 2015.
Sequence differences from the human genome were confirmed to be ∼1% in areas that can be precisely aligned, representing ∼35 million single base-pair differences. Some 45 million nucleotides of insertions and deletions unique to each lineage were also discovered, making the actual difference between the two genomes ∼4%.
- ^ une b Sayers, Ken; Raghanti, Mary Ann; Lovejoy, C. Owen (October 2012). « Human Evolution and the Chimpanzee Referential Doctrine ». Annual Review of Anthropology. 41: 119–138. doi:10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145815. ISSN 0084-6570.
- ^ Dawkins 2004
- ^ Ruvolo, Maryellen (October 1997). « Genetic Diversity in Hominoid Primates ». Annual Review of Anthropology. 26: 515–540. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.515. ISSN 0084-6570.
- ^ Ruvolo, Maryellen (March 1997). « Molecular Phylogeny of the Hominoids: Inferences from Multiple Independent DNA Sequence Data Sets ». Molecular Biology and Evolution. 14 (3): 248–265. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025761. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 9066793.
- ^ Patterson, N; Richter, DJ; Gnerre, S; Lander, ES; Reich, D (2006). « Genetic evidence for complex speciation of humans and chimpanzees ». La nature. 441 (7097): 1103–1108. Bibcode:2006Natur.441.1103P. doi:10.1038/nature04789. PMID 16710306. S2CID 2325560.
- ^ Begun, David R. (October 2010). « Miocene Hominids and the Origins of the African Apes and Humans ». Annual Review of Anthropology. 39: 67–84. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.012809.105047. ISSN 0084-6570.
- ^ une b c Ghosh, Pallab (March 4, 2015). « ‘First human’ discovered in Ethiopia ». nouvelles de la BBC. Londres. Récupéré 19 avril 2015.
- ^ Wood 2009, pp. 17–27
- ^ Mitchell, Alanna (January 30, 2012). « DNA Turning Human Story Into a Tell-All ». Le New York Times. Récupéré 13 février 2012.
- ^ Wood, Bernard A. (December 1996). « Human evolution ». BioEssays. 18 (12): 945–954. doi:10.1002/bies.950181204. ISSN 0265-9247. PMID 8976151. S2CID 221464189.
- ^ Huxley, T. (1890). « The Aryan Question and Pre-Historic Man ». Collected Essays: Volume VII, Man’s Place in Nature.
- ^ Our ancestors mated with the mystery ‘Denisovan’ people – twice. Andy Coghlan, Nouveau scientifique. March 15, 2018.
- ^ Green, R. E.; Krause, J.; Briggs, A. W.; Maricic, T.; Stenzel, U.; Kircher, M.; Patterson, N.; Li, H.; Zhai, W.; Fritz, M. H. Y.; Hansen, N. F.; Durand, E. Y.; Malaspinas, A. S.; Jensen, J. D.; Marques-Bonet, T.; Alkan, C.; Prufer, K.; Meyer, M.; Burbano, H. A.; Good, J. M.; Schultz, R.; Aximu-Petri, A.; Butthof, A.; Hober, B.; Hoffner, B.; Siegemund, M.; Weihmann, A.; Nusbaum, C.; Lander, E. S.; Russ, C.; Novod, N.; Affourtit, J.; Egholm, M.; Verna, C.; Rudan, P.; Brajkovic, D.; Kucan, Z.; Gusic, I.; Doronichev, V. B.; Golovanova, L. V.; Lalueza-Fox, C.; de la Rasilla, M.; Fortea, J.; Rosas, A.; Schmitz, R. W.; Johnson, P. L. F.; Eichler, E. E.; Falush, D.; Birney, E.; Mullikin, J. C.; Slatkin, M.; Nielsen, R.; Kelso, J.; Lachmann, M.; Reich, D.; Paabo, S. (May 6, 2010). « A Draft Sequence of the Neandertal Genome ». Science. 328 (5979): 710–722. Bibcode:2010Sci…328..710G. doi:10.1126/science.1188021. PMC 5100745. PMID 20448178.
- ^ une b Wei-Haas, Maya (August 22, 2018). « Ancient Girl’s Parents Were Two Different Human Species – Born 90,000 years ago, the child is the first direct evidence of interbreeding among Neanderthals and their cousins the Denisovans ». National Geographic. Récupéré August 22, 2018.
- ^ A world map of Neanderthal and Denisovan ancestry in modern humans. March 28, 2016.
- ^ Sankararaman, Sriram; Mallick, Swapan; Patterson, Nick; Reich, David (2016). « The Combined Landscape of Denisovan and Neanderthal Ancestry in Present-Day Humans ». Current Biology. 26 (9): 1241–7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.03.037. PMC 4864120. PMID 27032491.
- ^ Human-Neandertal Comparisons. Tara Marathe. Science Magazine. 2010.
- ^ Dannemann, M; Andrés, AM; Kelso, J (2016). « Introgression of Neandertal- and Denisovan-like Haplotypes Contributes to Adaptive Variation in Human Toll-like Receptors ». Am J Hum Genet. 98 (1): 22–33. doi:10.1016/j.ajhg.2015.11.015. PMC 4716682. PMID 26748514.
- ^ Gittelman, Rachel M.; Schraiber, Joshua G.; Vernot, Benjamin; Mikacenic, Carmen; Wurfel, Mark M.; Akey, Joshua M. (2016). « Archaic Hominin Admixture Facilitated Adaptation to Out-of-Africa Environments ». Current Biology. 26 (24): 3375–3382. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.10.041. PMC 6764441. PMID 27839976.
- ^ Maxwell 1984, p. 296
- ^ Rui Zhang; Yin-Qiu Wang; Bing Su (July 2008). « Molecular Evolution of a Primate-Specific microRNA Family » (PDF). Molecular Biology and Evolution. 25 (7): 1493–1502. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn094. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 18417486. Récupéré 27 avril 2015.
- ^ Willoughby, Pamela R. (2005). « Palaeoanthropology and the Evolutionary Place of Humans in Nature ». International Journal of Comparative Psychology. 18 (1): 60–91. ISSN 0889-3667. Récupéré 27 avril 2015.
- ^ Martin 2001, pp. 12032–12038
- ^ Tavaré, Simon; Marshall, Charles R.; Will, Oliver; et al. (April 18, 2002). « Using the fossil record to estimate the age of the last common ancestor of extant primates ». La nature. 416 (6882): 726–729. Bibcode:2002Natur.416..726T. doi:10.1038/416726a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 11961552. S2CID 4368374.
- ^ Rose, Kenneth D. (1994). « The earliest primates ». Anthropologie évolutive: problèmes, actualités et critiques. 3 (5): 159–173. doi:10.1002/evan.1360030505. ISSN 1060-1538. S2CID 85035753.
- ^ Fleagle, John; Gilbert, Chris (2011). Rowe, Noel; Myers, Marc (eds.). « Primate Evolution ». All The World’s Primates. Charlestown, RI: Primate Conservation, Inc. Récupéré 27 avril 2015.
- ^ Roach, John (March 3, 2008). « Oldest Primate Fossil in North America Discovered ». Nouvelles National Geographic. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. Récupéré 27 avril 2015.
- ^ McMains, Vanessa (December 5, 2011). « Found in Wyoming: New fossils of oldest American primate ». La Gazette. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University. Récupéré 27 avril 2015.
- ^ Caldwell, Sara B. (May 19, 2009). « Missing link found, early primate fossil 47 million years old ». Digital Journal. Toronto, Canada: digitaljournal.com. Récupéré 27 avril 2015.
- ^ Watts, Alex (May 20, 2009). « Scientists Unveil Missing Link In Evolution ». Sky News Online. London: BSkyB. Archivé de l’original on July 28, 2011. Récupéré 27 avril 2015.
- ^ Wilford, J.N. (June 5, 2013). « Palm-size fossil resets primates’ clock, scientists say ». Le New York Times. Récupéré June 5, 2013.
- ^ Kordos, László; Begun, David R. (January 2001). « Primates from Rudabánya: allocation of specimens to individuals, sex and age categories ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 40 (1): 17–39. doi:10.1006/jhev.2000.0437. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 11139358.
- ^ Cameron 2004, p. 76
- ^ Wallace 2004, p. 240
- ^ Zalmout, Iyad S.; Sanders, William J.; MacLatchy, Laura M.; et al. (July 15, 2010). « New Oligocene primate from Saudi Arabia and the divergence of apes and Old World monkeys ». La nature. 466 (7304): 360–364. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..360Z. doi:10.1038/nature09094. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 20631798. S2CID 205220837.
- ^ une b Clark, G.; Henneberg, M. (June 2015). « The life history of Ardipithecus ramidus: a heterochronic model of sexual and social maturation ». Anthropological Review. 78 (2): 109–132. doi:10.1515/anre-2015-0009. S2CID 54900467. Récupéré 22 juillet 2015.
- ^ Zimmer, Carl (May 27, 2015). « The Human Family Tree Bristles With New Branches ». Le New York Times. Récupéré 30 mai 2015.
- ^ Gardner., Elizabeth K.; Purdue University (April 1, 2015). « New instrument dates old skeleton before ‘Lucy’; ‘Little Foot’ 3.67 million years old ». Science Daily. Retrieved April 3, 2015.
- ^ Swisher, Curtis & Lewin 2001
- ^ basé sur Schlebusch, CM; Malmström, H; Günther, T; Sjödin, P; Coutinho, A; Edlund, H; Munters, AR; Vicente, M; Steyn, M; Soodyall, H; Lombard, M; Jakobsson, M (2017). « Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago ». Science. 358 (6363): 652–655. Bibcode:2017Sci…358..652S. doi:10.1126/science.aao6266. PMID 28971970. S2CID 206663925., Fig. 3 (H. sapiens divergence times) and Stringer, C. (2012). « What makes a modern human ». La nature. 485 (7396): 33–35. Bibcode:2012Natur.485…33S. doi:10.1038/485033a. PMID 22552077. S2CID 4420496. (archaic admixture).
- ^ Stringer 1994, p. 242
- ^ McHenry 2009, p. 265
- ^ « Out of Africa Revisited ». Science (This Week in Science). 308 (5724): 921. May 13, 2005. doi:10.1126/science.308.5724.921g. ISSN 0036-8075. S2CID 220100436.
- ^ Stringer, Chris (June 12, 2003). « Human evolution: Out of Ethiopia ». La nature. 423 (6941): 692–695. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..692S. doi:10.1038/423692a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 12802315. S2CID 26693109.
- ^ Johanson, Donald (May 2001). « Origins of Modern Humans: Multiregional or Out of Africa? ». actionbioscience. Washington, DC: American Institute of Biological Sciences. Récupéré 23 novembre 2009.
- ^ Mixon, Bobbie; Ehardt, Carolyn; Hammer, Michael (September 6, 2011). « Evolution’s Past Is Modern Human’s Present » (Communiqué de presse). National Science Foundation. Press Release 11-181. Récupéré April 20, 2015.
- ^ O’Neil, Dennis. « Early Modern Homo sapiens ». Evolution of Modern Humans: A Survey of the Biological and Cultural Evolution of Archaic and Modern Homo sapiens (Tutorial). San Marcos, CA: Palomar College. Récupéré April 20, 2015.
- ^ « Fossil Reanalysis Pushes Back Origin of Homo sapiens« . Américain scientifique. February 17, 2005. ISSN 0036-8733. Récupéré April 20, 2015.
- ^ Noonan, James P. (May 2010). « Neanderthal genomics and the evolution of modern humans ». Genome Research. 20 (5): 547–553. doi:10.1101/gr.076000.108. ISSN 1088-9051. PMC 2860157. PMID 20439435.
- ^ Mellars, Paul (June 20, 2006). « Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60,000 years ago? A new model ». Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. ETATS-UNIS. 103 (25): 9381–9386. Bibcode:2006PNAS..103.9381M. doi:10.1073/pnas.0510792103. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1480416. PMID 16772383.
- ^ une b Mcbrearty, Sally; Brooks, Alison S. (November 2000). « The revolution that wasn’t: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 39 (5): 453–563. doi:10.1006/jhev.2000.0435. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 11102266. S2CID 42968840.
- ^ Strait, David S.; Grine, Frederick E.; Moniz, Marc A. (January 1997). « A reappraisal of early hominid phylogeny ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 32 (1): 17–82. doi:10.1006/jhev.1996.0097. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 9034954. S2CID 37754799.
- ^ une b Bryson 2004, pp. 522–543
- ^ Walker 2007, pp. 3–10
- ^ Ungar & Teaford 2002
- ^ Bogin 1997, pp. 96–142
- ^ Barnicot, Nigel A. (April–June 2005). « Human nutrition: Evolutionary perspectives ». Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science. 40 (2): 114–117. doi:10.1007/BF02734246. ISSN 1932-4502. PMID 17393680. S2CID 39549910.
- ^ « The new batch – 150,000 years ago ». The evolution of man. London: BBC Science & Nature. Archivé de l’original on January 18, 2006. Récupéré 28 avril 2015.
- ^ Whitehouse, David (June 9, 2003). « When humans faced extinction ». nouvelles de la BBC. London: BBC. Récupéré 5 janvier 2007.
- ^ « Modern humans flourished through ancient supervolcano eruption 74,000 years ago: Modern humans flourished through ancient supervolcano eruption ». ScienceDaily. Récupéré 24 janvier 2019.
- ^ Wood, Bernard; Collard, Mark (1999). « The changing face of Genus Homo« . Anthropologie évolutive: problèmes, actualités et critiques. 8 (6): 195–207. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6505(1999)8:6<195::AID-EVAN1>3.0.CO;2-2. ISSN 1060-1538.
- ^ Viegas, Jennifer (May 21, 2010). « Toothy Tree-Swinger May Be Earliest Human ». Discovery News. Silver Spring, MD: Discovery Communications, LLC. Récupéré 28 avril 2015.
- ^ Wood, Bernard A. (January 1999). « Homo rudolfensis Alexeev, 1986 – fact or phantom? ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 36 (1): 115–118. doi:10.1006/jhev.1998.0246. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 9924136.
- ^ Gabounia, Léo; de Lumley, Marie-Antoinette; Vekua, Abesalom; et al. (September 2002). « Découverte d’un nouvel hominidé à Dmanissi (Transcaucasie, Géorgie) » [Discovery of a new hominid at Dmanisi (Transcaucasia, Georgia)]. Comptes Rendus Palevol (en français). 1 (4): 243–253. doi:10.1016/S1631-0683(02)00032-5. ISSN 1631-0683.
- ^ Lordkipanidze, David; Vekua, Abesalom; Ferring, Reid; et al. (November 2006). « A fourth hominin skull from Dmanisi, Georgia ». The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology. 288A (11): 1146–1157. doi:10.1002/ar.a.20379. ISSN 1552-4884. PMID 17031841.
- ^ Turner, William (April 1895). « On M. Dubois’ Description of Remains recently found in Java, named by him Pithecanthropus erectus. With Remarks on so-called Transitional Forms between Apes and Man ». Journal of Anatomy and Physiology. 29 (Pt 3): 424–445. PMC 1328414. PMID 17232143.
- ^ Weidenreich, Franz (July 1940). « Some Problems Dealing with Ancient Man ». American Anthropologist. 42 (3): 375–383. doi:10.1525/aa.1940.42.3.02a00010. ISSN 0002-7294.
- ^ Grine, Frederick E.; Fleagle, John G. (2009), « The First Humans: A Summary Perspective on the Origin and Early Evolution of the Genus Homo », Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology, Springer Netherlands, pp. 197–207, doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9980-9_17, ISBN 9781402099793
- ^ Spoor, Fred; Wood, Bernard A.; Zonneveld, Frans (June 23, 1994). « Implications of early hominid labyrinthine morphology for evolution of human bipedal locomotion ». La nature. 369 (6482): 645–648. Bibcode:1994Natur.369..645S. doi:10.1038/369645a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 8208290. S2CID 4344784.
- ^ Ings, Simon (October 4, 2009). « Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human by Richard Wrangham: review ». Récupéré 23 février 2016.
- ^ Wrangham, Richard (2011), « Catching Fire: How cooking made us human »
- ^ Bermúdez de Castro, José María; Arsuaga, Juan Luis; Carbonell, Eudald; et al. (May 30, 1997). « A Hominid from the Lower Pleistocene of Atapuerca, Spain: Possible Ancestor to Neandertals and Modern Humans ». Science. 276 (5317): 1392–1395. doi:10.1126/science.276.5317.1392. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 9162001.
- ^ Carbonell, Eudald; Bermúdez de Castro, José María; Parés, Josep M.; et al. (March 27, 2008). « The first hominin of Europe ». La nature. 452 (7186): 465–469. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..465C. doi:10.1038/nature06815. hdl:2027.42/62855. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 18368116. S2CID 4401629.
- ^ Manzi, Giorgio; Mallegni, Francesco; Ascenzi, Antonio (August 14, 2001). « A cranium for the earliest Europeans: Phylogenetic position of the hominid from Ceprano, Italy ». Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. ETATS-UNIS. 98 (17): 10011–10016. Bibcode:2001PNAS…9810011M. doi:10.1073/pnas.151259998. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 55569. PMID 11504953.
- ^ Czarnetzki, Alfred; Jakob, Tina; Pusch, Carsten M. (April 2003). « Palaeopathological and variant conditions of the Homo heidelbergensis type specimen (Mauer, Germany) ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 44 (4): 479–495. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00029-0. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 12727464.
- ^ Semaw, Sileshi; Toth, Nicholas; Schick, Kathy; et al. (March 27, 2006). « Scientists discover hominid cranium in Ethiopia » (Communiqué de presse). Bloomington: Indiana University. Récupéré November 26, 2006.
- ^ Harvati, Katerina (January 2003). « The Neanderthal taxonomic position: models of intra- and inter-specific craniofacial variation ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 44 (1): 107–132. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(02)00208-7. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 12604307.
- ^ Herrera, K.J.; Somarelli, J.A.; Lowery, R.K.; Herrera, R.J. (2009). « To what extent did Neanderthals and modern humans interact? ». Biological Reviews. 84 (2): 245–257. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00071.x. PMID 19391204. S2CID 25787484.
- ^ Finlayson, Clive; Giles Pacheco, Francisco; Rodríguez-Vidal, Joaquín; Fa, Darren A; María Gutierrez López, José; Santiago Pérez, Antonio; Finlayson, Geraldine; Allue, Ethel; Baena Preysler, Javier; Cáceres, Isabel; Carrión, José S; Fernández Jalvo, Yolanda; Gleed-Owen, Christopher P; Jimenez Espejo, Francisco J; López, Pilar; Antonio López Sáez, José; Antonio Riquelme Cantal, José; Sánchez Marco, Antonio; Giles Guzman, Francisco; Brown, Kimberly; Fuentes, Noemí; Valarino, Claire A; Villalpando, Antonio; Stringer, Christopher B; Martinez Ruiz, Francisca; Sakamoto, Tatsuhiko (2006). « Late survival of Neanderthals at the southernmost extreme of Europe ». La nature. 443 (7113): 850–853. Bibcode:2006Natur.443..850F. doi:10.1038/nature05195. hdl:10261/18685. PMID 16971951. S2CID 4411186.
- ^ une b Pearce, Eiluned; Stringer, Chris; Dunbar, R.I.M. (2013). « New insights into differences in brain organization between Neanderthals and anatomically modern humans (Proceedings of the Royal Society) ». Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences. 280 (1758): 20130168. doi:10.1098/rspb.2013.0168. PMC 3619466. PMID 23486442.
- ^ Krings, Matthias; Stone, Anne; Schmitz, Ralf W.; et al. (July 11, 1997). « Neandertal DNA sequences and the origin of modern humans ». Cellule. 90 (1): 19–30. doi:10.1016/S0092-8674(00)80310-4. hdl:11858/00-001M-0000-0025-0960-8. ISSN 0092-8674. PMID 9230299. S2CID 13581775.
- ^ Green, Richard E.; Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo; Krause, Johannes; et al. (August 8, 2008). « A Complete Neandertal Mitochondrial Genome Sequence Determined by High-Throughput Sequencing ». Cellule. 134 (3): 416–426. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008.06.021. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 2602844. PMID 18692465.
- ^ Serre, David; Langaney, André; Chech, Mario; et al. (March 2004). « No Evidence of Neandertal mtDNA Contribution to Early Modern Humans ». Biologie PLOS. 2 (3): e57. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0020057. ISSN 1545-7885. PMC 368159. PMID 15024415.
- ^ une b Viegas, Jennifer (May 6, 2010). « Neanderthals, Humans Interbred, DNA Proves ». Discovery News. Silver Spring, MD: Discovery Communications, LLC. Archivé de l’original on May 8, 2015. Récupéré 30 avril 2015.
- ^ Calloway, Ewan (May 13, 2015). « Early European may have had Neanderthal great-great-grandparent ». La nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2015.17534. S2CID 181973496.
- ^ Sample, Ian (June 22, 2015). « My Neanderthal sex secret: modern European’s great-great grandparent link ». Le gardien. Récupéré 27 juillet 2018.
- ^ Gutiérrez, Gabriel; Sánchez, Diego; Marín, Antonio (August 2002). « A Reanalysis of the Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Sequences Recovered from Neandertal Bones ». Molecular Biology and Evolution. 19 (8): 1359–1366. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004197. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 12140248.
- ^ Hebsgaard, Martin B.; Wiuf, Carsten; Gilbert, M. Thomas; et al. (January 2007). « Evaluating Neanderthal Genetics and Phylogeny » (PDF). Journal of Molecular Evolution. 64 (1): 50–60. Bibcode:2007JMolE..64…50H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.174.8969. doi:10.1007/s00239-006-0017-y. ISSN 0022-2844. PMID 17146600. S2CID 2746487. Archivé de l’original (PDF) on April 1, 2011. Récupéré October 24, 2017.
- ^ Mellars, Paul; French, Jennifer C. (July 29, 2011). « Tenfold Population Increase in Western Europe at the Neandertal–to–Modern Human Transition Paul ». Science. 333 (6042): 623–627. Bibcode:2011Sci…333..623M. doi:10.1126/science.1206930. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 21798948. S2CID 28256970.
- ^ Brown, Terence A. (April 8, 2010). « Human evolution: Stranger from Siberia ». La nature. 464 (7290): 838–839. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..838B. doi:10.1038/464838a. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 20376137. S2CID 4320406.
- ^ une b Krause, Johannes; Qiaomei Fu; Good, Jeffrey M.; et al. (April 8, 2010). « The complete mitochondrial DNA genome of an unknown hominin from southern Siberia ». La nature. 464 (7290): 894–897. Bibcode:2010Natur.464..894K. doi:10.1038/nature08976. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 20336068. S2CID 4415601.
- ^ Katsnelson, Alla (March 24, 2010). « New hominin found via mtDNA ». The Nutshell (Blog). Philadelphia, PA: The Scientist. ISSN 0890-3670. Récupéré May 1, 2015.
- ^ « Kaufman, Danial (2002), « Comparisons and the Case for Interaction among Neanderthals and Early Modern Humans in the Levant » (Oxford Journal of Anthropology)
- ^ Bokma, Folmer; van den Brink, Valentijn; Stadler, Tanja (September 2012). « Unexpectedly many extinct hominins ». Évolution. 66 (9): 2969–2974. doi:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01660.x. ISSN 0014-3820. PMID 22946817. S2CID 13145359.
- ^ Martinón-Torres, María; Dennell, Robin; Bermúdez de Castro, José María (February 2011). « The Denisova hominin need not be an out of Africa story ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 60 (2): 251–255. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.10.005. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 21129766.
- ^ Simonti, C.N.; Vernot, B.; Bastarache, L.; Bottinger, E.; Carrell, D.S.; Chisholm, R.L.; Crosslin, D.R.; Hebbring, S.J.; Jarvik, G. P.; Kullo, I.J.; Li, R.; Pathak, J.; Ritchie, M.D.; Roden, D.M.; Verma, S.S.; Tromp, G.; Prato, J.D.; Bush, W.S.; Akey, J.M.; Denny, J.C.; Capra, J.A. (2016). « The phenotypic legacy of admixture between modern humans and Neandertals ». Science. 351 (6274): 737–741. Bibcode:2016Sci…351..737S. doi:10.1126/science.aad2149. PMC 4849557. PMID 26912863.
- ^ Kuhlwilm, M; Gronau, I; Hubisz, MJ; de Filippo, C; Prado-Martinez, J; Kircher, M; Fu, Q; Burbano, HA; Lalueza-Fox, C; de la Rasilla, M; Rosas, A; Rudan, P; Brajkovic, D; Kucan, Ž; Gušic, I; Marques-Bonet, T; Andrés, AM; Viola, B; Pääbo, S; Meyer, M; Siepel, A; Castellano, S (2016). « Ancient gene flow from early modern humans into Eastern Neanderthals ». La nature. 530 (7591): 429–433. Bibcode:2016Natur.530..429K. doi:10.1038/nature16544. PMC 4933530. PMID 26886800.
- ^ Dean, MC, Stringer, CB et al, (1986) « Age at death of the Neanderthal child from Devil’s Tower, Gibraltar and the implications for studies of general growth and development in Neanderthals » (American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Vol 70 Issue 3, July 1986)
- ^ une b Brown, Peter; Sutikna, Thomas; Morwood, Michael J.; Soejono, Raden Panji; et al. (October 28, 2004). « A new small-bodied hominin from the Late Pleistocene of Flores, Indonesia ». La nature. 431 (7012): 1055–1061. Bibcode:2004Natur.431.1055B. doi:10.1038/nature02999. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 15514638. S2CID 26441.
- ^ une b Argue, Debbie; Donlon, Denise; Groves, Colin; et al. (October 2006). « Homo floresiensis: Microcephalic, pygmoid, Australopithèque, ou Homo? ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 51 (4): 360–374. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.04.013. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 16919706.
- ^ une b Martin, Robert D.; Maclarnon, Ann M.; Phillips, James L.; et al. (November 2006). « Flores hominid: New species or microcephalic dwarf? ». The Anatomical Record Part A: Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology. 288A (11): 1123–1145. doi:10.1002/ar.a.20389. ISSN 1552-4884. PMID 17031806.
- ^ Détroit, F.; Mijares, A. S.; Corny, J.; Daver, G.; Zanolli, C.; Dizon, E.; Robles, E.; Grün, R. & Piper, P. J. (2019). « A new species of Homo from the Late Pleistocene of the Philippines ». La nature. 568 (7751): 181–186. Bibcode:2019Natur.568..181D. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1067-9. PMID 30971845. S2CID 106411053.
- ^ Schlebusch, Carina M; Malmström, Helena; Günther, Torsten; Sjödin, Per; Coutinho, Alexandra; Edlund, Hanna; Munters, Arielle R; Vicente, Mário; Steyn, Maryna; Soodyall, Himla; Lombard, Marlize; Jakobsson, Mattias (2017). « Southern African ancient genomes estimate modern human divergence to 350,000 to 260,000 years ago ». Science. 358 (6363): 652–655. Bibcode:2017Sci…358..652S. doi:10.1126/science.aao6266. PMID 28971970. S2CID 206663925.
- ^ Sample, Ian (June 7, 2017). « Oldest Homo sapiens bones ever found shake foundations of the human story ». Le gardien. Récupéré 7 juin 2017.
- ^ Zimmer, Carl (September 10, 2019). « Scientists Find the Skull of Humanity’s Ancestor — on a Computer – By comparing fossils and CT scans, researchers say they have reconstructed the skull of the last common forebear of modern humans ». Le New York Times. Récupéré September 10, 2019.
- ^ Mounier, Aurélien; Lahr, Marta (2019). « Décrypter la diversité des hominidés africains du Pléistocène moyen tardif et l’origine de notre espèce ». Nature Communications. dix (1): 3406. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.3406M. doi:10.1038 / s41467-019-11213-w. PMC 6736881. PMID 31506422.
- ^ Ambrose, Stanley H. (June 1998). « Late Pleistocene human population bottlenecks, volcanic winter, and differentiation of modern humans ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 34 (6): 623–651. doi:10.1006/jhev.1998.0219. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 9650103. S2CID 33122717.
- ^ Huff, Chad. D; Xing, Jinchuan; Rogers, Alan R.; Witherspoon, David; Jorde, Lynn B. (January 19, 2010). « Mobile Elements Reveal Small Population Size in the Ancient Ancestors of Homo Sapiens ». Actes de l’Académie nationale des sciences. 107 (5): 2147–2152. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.2147H. doi:10.1073/pnas.0909000107. PMC 2836654. PMID 20133859.
- ^ une b Ko, Kwang Hyun (2016). « Origins of human intelligence: The chain of tool-making and brain evolution » (PDF). Cahiers anthropologiques. 22 (1): 5–22.
- ^ Jabr, Ferris (July 18, 2012). « Does Thinking Really Hard Burn More Calories? ». Américain scientifique. ISSN 0036-8733. Récupéré 3 mai, 2015.
- ^ Gibbons, Ann (May 29, 1998). « Solving the Brain’s Energy Crisis ». Science. 280 (5368): 1345–1347. doi:10.1126/science.280.5368.1345. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 9634409. S2CID 28464775.
- ^ Robinson 2008, p. 398
- ^ une b Harmand, Sonia; Lewis, Jason E.; Feibel, Craig S.; Lepre, Christopher J.; Prat, Sandrine; Lenoble, Arnaud; Boës, Xavier; Quinn, Rhonda L.; Brenet, Michel (May 20, 2015). « 3.3-million-year-old stone tools from Lomekwi 3, West Turkana, Kenya ». La nature. 521 (7552): 310–315. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..310H. doi:10.1038/nature14464. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 25993961. S2CID 1207285.
- ^ Semaw, Sileshi; Rogers, Michael J.; Quade, Jay; Renne, Paul R.; Butler, Robert F.; Dominguez-Rodrigo, Manuel; Stout, Dietrich; Hart, William S.; Pickering, Travis; Simpson, Scott W. (August 1, 2003). « 2.6-Million-year-old stone tools and associated bones from OGS-6 and OGS-7, Gona, Afar, Ethiopia ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 45 (2): 169–177. doi:10.1016/S0047-2484(03)00093-9. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 14529651.
- ^ une b c Freeman & Herron 2007, pp. 786–788
- ^ Ward, Carol V.; Tocheri, Matthew W.; Plavcan, J. Michael; et al. (January 7, 2014). « Early Pleistocene third metacarpal from Kenya and the evolution of modern human-like hand morphology ». Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. ETATS-UNIS. 111 (1): 121–124. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111..121W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1316014110. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3890866. PMID 24344276.
- ^ une b Plummer, Thomas (2004). « Flaked stones and old bones: Biological and cultural evolution at the dawn of technology ». Journal américain d’anthropologie physique. Supplement 39 (Yearbook of Physical Anthropology): 118–164. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20157. ISSN 0002-9483. PMID 15605391.
- ^ Wong, Kate (April 15, 2015). « Archaeologists Take Wrong Turn, Find World’s Oldest Stone Tools ». Américain scientifique (Blog). ISSN 0036-8733. Récupéré 3 mai, 2015.
- ^ Balter, Michael (April 14, 2015). « World’s oldest stone tools discovered in Kenya ». Science (News). doi:10.1126/science.aab2487. ISSN 0036-8075. Récupéré 3 mai, 2015.
- ^ Drake, Nadia (April 16, 2015). « Oldest Stone Tools Discovered in Kenya ». Nouvelles National Geographic. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. Récupéré 3 mai, 2015.
- ^ Henshilwood, Christopher S.; et al. (2002). « Emergence of Modern Human Behavior: Middle Stone Age Engravings from South Africa ». Science. 295 (5558): 1278–1280. Bibcode:2002Sci…295.1278H. doi:10.1126/science.1067575. PMID 11786608. S2CID 31169551.
- ^ Yellen, JE; AS Brooks; E Cornelissen; MJ Mehlman; K Stewart (April 28, 1995). « A middle stone age worked bone industry from Katanda, Upper Semliki Valley, Zaire ». Science. 268 (5210): 553–556. Bibcode:1995Sci…268..553Y. doi:10.1126/science.7725100. PMID 7725100.
- ^ Diamond 1999, p. 39
- ^ Bar-Yosef, Ofer (October 2002). « The Upper Paleolithic Revolution ». Annual Review of Anthropology. 31: 363–393. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.31.040402.085416. ISSN 0084-6570.
- ^ McBrearty, Sally; Brooks, Allison (2000). « The revolution that wasn’t: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 39 (5): 453–563. doi:10.1006/jhev.2000.0435. PMID 11102266. S2CID 42968840.
- ^ Henshilwood, Christopher; Marean, Curtis (2003). « The Origin of Modern Human Behavior: Critique of the Models and Their Test Implications ». Anthropologie actuelle. 44 (5): 627–651. doi:10.1086/377665. PMID 14971366. S2CID 11081605.
- ^ Henshilwood, C. S.; d’Errico, F.; Yates, R.; Jacobs, Z.; Tribolo, C.; Duller, G. A. T.; Mercier, N.; Sealy, J. C.; Valladas, H.; Watts, I.; Wintle, A. G. (2002). « Emergence of modern human behavior: Middle Stone Age engravings from South Africa ». Science. 295 (5558): 1278–1280. Bibcode:2002Sci…295.1278H. doi:10.1126/science.1067575. PMID 11786608. S2CID 31169551.
- ^ Backwell, L; d’Errico, F; Wadley, L (2008). « Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa ». Journal of Archaeological Science. 35 (6): 1566–1580. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006.
- ^ Nowell, April (October 2010). « Defining Behavioral Modernity in the Context of Neandertal and Anatomically Modern Human Populations ». Annual Review of Anthropology. 39: 437–452. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.012809.105113. ISSN 0084-6570.
- ^ d’Errico, Francesco; Stringer, Chris B. (April 12, 2011). « Evolution, revolution or saltation scenario for the emergence of modern cultures? ». Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 366 (1567): 1060–1069. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0340. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 3049097. PMID 21357228.
- ^ Chatterjee, Rhitu (March 15, 2018). « Scientists Are Amazed By Stone Age Tools They Dug Up In Kenya ». Radio Nationale Publique. Récupéré 15 mars, 2018.
- ^ Yong, Ed (March 15, 2018). « A Cultural Leap at the Dawn of Humanity – New finds from Kenya suggest that humans used long-distance trade networks, sophisticated tools, and symbolic pigments right from the dawn of our species ». L’Atlantique. Récupéré 15 mars, 2018.
- ^ Brooks AS, Yellen JE, Potts R, Behrensmeyer AK, Deino AL, Leslie DE, Ambrose SH, Ferguson JR, d’Errico F, Zipkin AM, Whittaker S, Post J, Veatch EG, Foecke K, Clark JB (2018). « Long-distance stone transport and pigment use in the earliest Middle Stone Age ». Science. 360 (6384): 90–94. Bibcode:2018Sci…360…90B. doi:10.1126/science.aao2646. PMID 29545508. S2CID 14051717.
- ^ Rasmussen, M; Guo, X; Wang, Y; Lohmueller, K.E; Rasmussen, S; Albrechtsen, A; Skotte, L; Lindgreen, S; Metspalu, M; Jombart, T; Kivisild, T; Zhai, W; Eriksson, A; Manica, A; Orlando, L; de la Vega, F.M; Tridico, S; Metspalu, E; Nielsen, K; Avila-Arcos, M.C.; Moreno-Mayar, J.V.; Muller, C; Dortch, J; Gilbert, M.T.P.; Lund, O; Wesolowska, A; Karmin, M; Weinert, L.A.; Wang, B; et al. (2011). « An Aboriginal Australian Genome Reveals Separate Human Dispersals into Asia ». Science. 334 (6052): 94–98. Bibcode:2011Sci…334…94R. doi:10.1126/science.1211177. PMC 3991479. PMID 21940856.
- ^ Ambrose, Stanley H. (March 2, 2001). « Paleolithic Technology and Human Evolution ». Science. 291 (5509): 1748–1753. Bibcode:2001Sci…291.1748A. doi:10.1126/science.1059487. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 11249821. S2CID 6170692.
- ^ Mellars, P (2010). « Neanderthal symbolism and ornament manufacture: The bursting of a bubble? ». Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 107 (47): 20147–20148. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10720147M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1014588107. PMC 2996706. PMID 21078972.
- ^ Cochran & Harpending 2009
- ^ Bender, Andrea (August 8, 2019). « The Role of Culture and Evolution for Human Cognition ». Topics in Cognitive Science. 12 (4): 1403–1420. doi:10.1111/tops.12449. ISSN 1756-8757. PMID 31392845.
- ^ Medical Research Council (UK) (November 21, 2009). « Brain Disease ‘Resistance Gene’ evolves in Papua New Guinea community; could offer insights Into CJD ». ScienceDaily. Rockville, MD: ScienceDaily, LLC. Récupéré 22 novembre 2009.
- ^ Mead, S.; Whitfield, J.; Poulter, M.; Shah, P.; Uphill, J.; Campbell, T.; Al-Dujaily, H.; Hummerich, H.; Beck, J.; Mein, C.A.; Verzilli, C.; Whittaker, J.; Alpers, M.P.; Collinge, J. (2009). « A Novel Protective Prion Protein Variant that Colocalizes with Kuru Exposure » (PDF). Le New England Journal of Medicine. 361 (21): 2056–2065. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0809716. PMID 19923577.
- ^ Corbett, Stephen; Morin-Papunen, Laure (July 2013). « The Polycystic Ovary Syndrome and recent human evolution ». Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology. 373 (1–2): 39–50. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2013.01.001. PMID 23352610. S2CID 13078403.
- ^ Diamond 1999
- ^ Courtiol, Alexandre; Tropf, Felix C.; Mills, Melinda C. (July 12, 2016). « When genes and environment disagree: Making sense of trends in recent human evolution ». Actes de l’Académie nationale des sciences. 113 (28): 7693–7695. doi:10.1073/pnas.1608532113. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 4948334. PMID 27402758.
- ^ Markov, Alexander V.; Markov, Mikhail A. (June 2020). « Runaway brain‐culture coevolution as a reason for larger brains: Exploring the « cultural drive » hypothesis by computer modeling ». Écologie et évolution. dix (12): 6059–6077. doi:10.1002/ece3.6350. ISSN 2045-7758. PMC 7319167. PMID 32607213.
- ^ Stout, Dietrich (April 12, 2011). « Stone toolmaking and the evolution of human culture and cognition ». Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 366 (1567): 1050–1059. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0369. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 3049103. PMID 21357227.
- ^ une b Byars, S.G.; Ewbank, D.; Govindaraju, D.R.; Stearns, S.C. (2009). « Natural selection in a contemporary human population ». Actes de l’Académie nationale des sciences. 107 (suppl_1): 1787–1792. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.1787B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0906199106. PMC 2868295. PMID 19858476.
Sources[[[[Éditer]
- Aiello, Leslie; Dean, Christopher (1990). An Introduction to Human Evolutionary Anatomy. London; San Diego: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-045591-1. LCCN 95185095. OCLC 33408268.
- American Heritage Dictionaries (editors) (2006). More Word Histories and Mysteries: From Aardvark to Zombie. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-71681-4. LCCN 2006020835. OCLC 70199867.
- Bogin, Barry (1997). « The Evolution of Human Nutrition ». In Romanucci-Ross, Lola; Moerman, Daniel E.; Tancredi, Laurence R. (eds.). The Anthropology of Medicine: From Culture to Method (3rd ed.). Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 978-0-89789-516-3. LCCN 96053993. OCLC 36165190.
- Bown, Thomas M.; Rose, Kenneth D. (1987). Patterns of Dental Evolution in Early Eocene Anaptomorphine Primates (Omomyidae) From the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming (PDF). Memoir (Paleontological Society). 23. Tulsa, OK: Paleontological Society. OCLC 16997265.
- Boyd, Robert; Silk, Joan B. (2003). How Humans Evolved (3rd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-97854-4. LCCN 2002075336. OCLC 49959461.
- Brues, Alice M.; Snow, Clyde C. (1965). « Physical Anthropology ». In Siegel, Bernard J. (ed.). Biennial Review of Anthropology 1965. Biennial Review of Anthropology. 4. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1746-5. ISSN 0067-8503. LCCN 59012726. OCLC 01532912.
- Bryson, Bill (2004) [Originally published 2003]. « The Mysterious Biped ». A Short History of Nearly Everything. Toronto: Anchor Canada. ISBN 978-0-385-66004-4. LCCN 2003046006. OCLC 55016591.
- Cameron, David W. (2004). Hominid Adaptations and Extinctions. Sydney, NSW: UNSW Press. ISBN 978-0-86840-716-6. LCCN 2004353026. OCLC 57077633.
- Cochran, Gregory; Harpending, Henry (2009). The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00221-4. LCCN 2008036672. OCLC 191926088.
- Curry, James R. (2008). Children of God: Children of Earth. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse. ISBN 978-1-4389-1846-4. OCLC 421466369.
- Darwin, Charles (1981) [Originally published 1871; London: John Murray]. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. Introduction by John Tyler Bonner and Robert M. May (Reprint ed.). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02369-4. LCCN 80008679. OCLC 7197127.
- Dawkins, Richard (2004). The Ancestor’s Tale: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Evolution. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-618-00583-3. LCCN 2004059864. OCLC 56617123.
- DeSalle, Rob; Tattersall, Ian (2008). Human Origins: What Bones and Genomes Tell Us About Ourselves. Texas A&M University Anthropology Series. 13 (1st ed.). College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-58544-567-7. OCLC 144520427.
- Diamond, Jared (1999). Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-31755-8. LCCN 2005284124. OCLC 35792200.
- Freeman, Scott; Herron, Jon C. (2007). Evolutionary Analysis (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-227584-2. LCCN 2006034384. OCLC 73502978.
- Galinon-Melenec, Béatrice (2015). « From « Traces » and « Human Trace » to « Human–Trace Paradigm« « . In Parrend, Pierre; Bourgine, Paul; Collet, Pierre (eds.). First Complex systems Digital Campus World E-Conference. Tempe, Arizona: Springer.
- Johanson, Donald; Edey, Maitland (1981). Lucy, the Beginnings of Humankind. St Albans: Granada. ISBN 978-0-586-08437-3.
- Montgomery, William M. (1988) [Originally published 1974]. « Germany ». In Glick, Thomas F. (ed.). The Comparative Reception of Darwinism. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-29977-8. LCCN 87035814. OCLC 17328115. « The Conference on the Comparative Reception of Darwinism was held in Austin, Texas, on April 22 and 23, 1972, under the joint sponsorship of the American Council of Learned Societies and the University of Texas at Austin »
- Kondo, Shiro, ed. (1985). Primate Morphophysiology, Locomotor Analyses, and Human Bipedalism. Journal américain d’anthropologie physique. 70. Tokyo: University of Tokyo Press. pp. 278–279. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330700214. ISBN 978-4-13-066093-8. LCCN 85173489. OCLC 12352830.
- Leakey, Richard E. (1994). The Origin of Humankind. Science Masters Series. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-03135-1. LCCN 94003617. OCLC 30739453.
- M’charek, Amade (2005). The Human Genome Diversity Project: An Ethnography of Scientific Practice. Cambridge Studies in Society and the Life Sciences. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83222-9. LCCN 2004052648. OCLC 55600894.
- Martin, Robert D. (2001). « Primates, Evolution of ». In Smelser, Neil J.; Baltes, Paul B. (eds.). International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (1st ed.). Amsterdam; New York: Elsevier. pp. 12032–12038. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/03083-7. ISBN 978-0-08-043076-8. LCCN 2001044791. OCLC 47869490.
- Maxwell, Mary (1984). Human Evolution: A Philosophical Anthropology. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-05946-6. LCCN 83024005. OCLC 10163036.
- McHenry, Henry M. (2009). « Human Evolution ». In Ruse, Michael; Travis, Joseph (eds.). Evolution: The First Four Billion Years. Foreword by Edward O. Wilson. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03175-3. LCCN 2008030270. OCLC 225874308.
- Ramachandran, Sohini; Hua Tang; Gutenkunst, Ryan N.; Bustamante, Carlos D. (2010). « Genetics and Genomics of Human Population Structure ». In Speicher, Michael R.; Antonarakis, Stylianos E.; Motulsky, Arno G. (eds.). Vogel and Motulsky’s Human Genetics: Problems and Approaches (4th completely rev. ed.). Heidelberg; London; New York: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-37654-5. ISBN 978-3-540-37653-8. LCCN 2009931325. OCLC 549541244.
- Robinson, J.T. (2008) [Originally published 1963; Chicago, Illinois: Aldine Transaction]. « Adaptive Radiation in the Australopithecines and the Origin of Man ». In Howell, F. Clark; Bourlière, François (eds.). African Ecology and Human Evolution. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-202-36136-9. LCCN 2007024716. OCLC 144770218.
- Srivastava, R.P. (2009). Morphology of the Primates and Human Evolution. New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited. ISBN 978-81-203-3656-8. OCLC 423293609.
- Stanford, Craig; Allen, John S.; Antón, Susan C. (2009). Biological Anthropology: The Natural History of Humankind (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-601160-6. LCCN 2007052429. OCLC 187548835.
- Strickberger, Monroe W. (2000). Évolution (3rd ed.). Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7637-1066-8. LCCN 99032072. OCLC 41431683.
- Stringer, Chris B. (1994) [First published 1992]. « Evolution of Early Humans ». In Jones, Steve; Martin, Robert D.; Pilbeam, David (eds.). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Foreword by Richard Dawkins (1st paperback ed.). Cambridge, Royaume-Uni: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-32370-3. LCCN 92018037. OCLC 444512451.
- Swisher, Carl C., III; Curtis, Garniss H.; Lewin, Roger (2001) [Originally published 2000]. Java Man: How Two Geologists Changed Our Understanding of Human Evolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-78734-3. LCCN 2001037337. OCLC 48066180.
- Tishkoff, S.A.; Reed, F.A.; et al. (2009). « The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans ». Science (published May 22, 2009). 324 (5930): 1035–1044. Bibcode:2009Sci…324.1035T. doi:10.1126/science.1172257. PMC 2947357. PMID 19407144.
- Trent, Ronald J. (2005). Molecular Medicine: An Introductory Text (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-699057-7. LCCN 2004028087. OCLC 162577235.
- Trevathan, Wenda R. (2011) [Originally published 1987; New York: Aldine De Gruyter]. Human Birth: An Evolutionary Perspective. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4128-1502-4. LCCN 2010038249. OCLC 669122326.
- Ungar, Peter S.; Teaford, Mark F., eds. (2002). Human Diet: Its Origin and Evolution. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 978-0-89789-736-5. LCCN 2001043790. OCLC 537239907.
- Walker, Alan (2007). « Early Hominin Diets: Overview and Historical Perspectives ». In Ungar, Peter (ed.). Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable. Human Evolution Series. Oxford; New York: Presse d’université d’Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-518346-7. LCCN 2005036120. OCLC 132816551.
- Wallace, David Rains (2004). Beasts of Eden: Walking Whales, Dawn Horses, and Other Enigmas of Mammal Evolution. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24684-3. LCCN 2003022857. OCLC 53254011.
- Webster, Donovan (2010). Meeting the Family: One Man’s Journey Through His Human Ancestry. Foreword by Spencer Wells. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. ISBN 978-1-4262-0573-6. LCCN 2009050471. OCLC 429022321.
- Wood, Bernard A. (2009). « Where Does the Genus Homo Begin, and How Would We Know? ». In Grine, Frederick E.; Fleagle, John G.; Leakey, Richard E. (eds.). The First Humans: Origin and Early Evolution of the Genus Homo. Vertebrate Paleobiology and Paleoanthropology. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer Netherlands. pp. 17–28. doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9980-9_3. ISBN 978-1-4020-9979-3. ISSN 1877-9077. LCCN 2009927083. OCLC 310400980. « Contributions from the Third Stony Brook Human Evolution Symposium and Workshop October 3–7, 2006. »
Lectures complémentaires[[[[Éditer]
- Alexander, Richard D. (1990). How Did Humans Evolve? Reflections on the Uniquely Unique Species (PDF). Special Publication. Ann Arbor, MI: Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. pp. 1–38. LCCN 90623893. OCLC 22860997.
- Barton, Nicholas H.; Briggs, Derek E.G.; Eisen, Jonathan A.; et al. (2007). Évolution. Cold Spring Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. ISBN 978-0-87969-684-9. LCCN 2007010767. OCLC 86090399.
- Enard, Wolfgang; Przeworski, Molly; Fisher, Simon E.; et al. (August 22, 2002). « Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language ». La nature. 418 (6900): 869–872. Bibcode:2002Natur.418..869E. doi:10.1038/nature01025. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 12192408. S2CID 4416233.
- Flinn, Mark V.; Geary, David C.; Ward, Carol V. (January 2005). « Ecological dominance, social competition, and coalitionary arms races: Why humans evolved extraordinary intelligence » (PDF). Evolution and Human Behavior. 26 (1): 10–46. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.08.005. ISSN 1090-5138. Récupéré Le 5 mai, 2015.
- Gibbons, Ann (2006). The First Human: The Race to Discover our Earliest Ancestors (1st ed.). New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-51226-8. LCCN 2005053780. OCLC 61652817.
- Hartwig, Walter C., ed. (2002). The Primate Fossil Record. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology. 33. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-66315-1. LCCN 2001037847. OCLC 47254191.
- Heizmann, Elmar P.J.; Begun, David R. (November 2001). « The oldest Eurasian hominoid ». Journal de l’évolution humaine. 41 (5): 463–481. doi:10.1006/jhev.2001.0495. ISSN 0047-2484. PMID 11681862. S2CID 21230992.
- Hill, Andrew; Ward, Steven (1988). « Origin of the hominidae: The record of African large hominoid evolution between 14 my and 4 my ». Journal américain d’anthropologie physique. 31 (59): 49–83. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330310505. ISSN 0002-9483.
- Hoagland, Hudson (1964). « Science and the New Humanism ». Science. 143 (3602): 111–114. Bibcode:1964Sci…143..111H. doi:10.1126/science.143.3602.111. PMID 17781189.
- Ijdo, Jacob W.; Baldini, Antonio; Ward, David C.; et al. (October 15, 1991). « Origin of human chromosome 2: An ancestral telomere-telomere fusion ». Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. ETATS-UNIS. 88 (20): 9051–9055. Bibcode:1991PNAS…88.9051I. doi:10.1073/pnas.88.20.9051. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 52649. PMID 1924367. – two ancestral ape chromosomes fused to give rise to human chromosome 2
- Johanson, Donald; Wong, Kate (2010). Lucy’s Legacy: The Quest for Human Origins. New York: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-307-39640-2. LCCN 2010483830. OCLC 419801728.
- Jones, Steve; Martin, Robert D.; Pilbeam, David, eds. (1994) [First published 1992]. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Evolution. Foreword by Richard Dawkins (1st paperback ed.). Cambridge, Royaume-Uni: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-32370-3. LCCN 92018037. OCLC 444512451. (Note: this book contains very useful, information dense chapters on primate evolution in general, and human evolution in particular, including fossil history).
- Leakey, Richard E.; Lewin, Roger (1992). Origins Reconsidered: In Search of What Makes us Human. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-41264-3. LCCN 92006661. OCLC 25373161.
- Lewin, Roger (1997). Bones of Contention: Controversies in the Search for Human Origins (2nd ed.). Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-47651-3. LCCN 97000972. OCLC 36181117.
- Morwood, Mike; van Oosterzee, Penny (2007). A New Human: The Startling Discovery and Strange Story of the ‘Hobbits’ of Flores, Indonesia (1st Smithsonian Books ed.). New York: Smithsonian Books/HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-089908-0. LCCN 2006052267. OCLC 76481584.
- Oppenheimer, Stephen (2003). Out of Eden: The Peopling of the World. london: Constable & Robinson. ISBN 978-1-84119-697-8. LCCN 2005482222. OCLC 52195607.
- Ovchinnikov, Igor V.; Götherström, Anders; Romanova, Galina P.; et al. (March 30, 2000). « Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the Northern Caucasus ». La nature. 404 (6777): 490–493. Bibcode:2000Natur.404..490O. doi:10.1038/35006625. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 10761915. S2CID 3101375.
- Roberts, Alice M. (2009). The Incredible Human Journey: The Story of How We Colonised the Planet. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7475-9839-8. OCLC 310156315.
- Shreeve, James (1995). The Neandertal Enigma: Solving the Mystery of Modern Human Origins. New York: Morrow. ISBN 978-0-688-09407-2. LCCN 95006337. OCLC 32088673.
- Stringer, Chris B. (2011). The Origin of Our Species. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-1-84614-140-9. LCCN 2011489742. OCLC 689522193.
- Stringer, Chris B.; Andrews, Peter (2005). The Complete World of Human Evolution. London; New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-05132-0. LCCN 2004110563. OCLC 224377190.
- Sykes, Rebecca Wragg (2020). Kindred: Neanderthal Life, Love, Death and Art. London: Bloomsbury Sigma. ISBN 978-1-4729-3749-0.
- Stringer, Christopher; McKie, Robin (1997). African Exodus: The Origins of Modern Humanity (1st American ed.). New York: Henry Holt and Company. ISBN 978-0-8050-2759-4. LCCN 96037718. OCLC 36001167.
- Tattersall, Ian (2008). The Fossil Trail: How We Know What We Think We Know About Human Evolution (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University. ISBN 978-0195367669. LCCN 2008013654. OCLC 218188644.
- van Oosterzee, Penny (1999). Dragon Bones: The Story of Peking Man. St Leonards, New South Wales: Allen & Unwin. ISBN 978-1-86508-123-6. LCCN 00300421. OCLC 45853997.
- Wade, Nicholas (2006). Before the Dawn: Recovering the Lost History of Our Ancestors. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-1-59420-079-3. LCCN 2005055293. OCLC 62282400.
- Walker, Alan; Shipman, Pat (1996). The Wisdom of the Bones: In Search of Human Origins. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-81670-6. OCLC 35202130.
- Weiss, Mark L.; Mann, Alan E. (1985). Human Biology and Behavior: An Anthropological Perspective (4th ed.). Boston: Little Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-92894-6. LCCN 85000158. OCLC 11726796. (Note: this book contains very accessible descriptions of human and non-human primates, their evolution, and fossil history).
- Wells, Spencer (2003) [Originally published 2002; Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press]. The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey (Random House trade paperback ed.). New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. ISBN 978-0-8129-7146-0. LCCN 2003066679. OCLC 53287806.
Liens externes[[[[Éditer]
- « The evolution of man ». BBC Science & Nature. Récupéré Le 6 mai, 2015.
- « Becoming Human ». Arizona State University’s Institute of Human Origins. Récupéré Le 6 mai, 2015.
- « Bones, Stones and Genes: The Origin of Modern Humans » (Video lecture series). Howard Hughes Medical Institute. Archivé de l’original on April 24, 2015. Récupéré Le 6 mai, 2015.
- « Évolution Figures: Chapter 25″. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Récupéré Le 6 mai, 2015. – Illustrations from the book Évolution (2007)
- « Human Evolution ». Smithsonian Institution’s Human Origins Program. Récupéré 24 juin 2013.
- « Human Evolution Timeline ». ArchaeologyInfo.com. Récupéré 24 juin 2013.
- « Human Trace » video 2015 Normandy University UNIHAVRE, CNRS, IDEES, E.Laboratory on Human Trace Unitwin Complex System Digital Campus UNESCO.
- Lambert, Tim (Producer) (June 24, 2015). First Peoples. London: Wall to Wall Television. OCLC 910115743. Récupéré 18 juillet 2015.
- Shaping Humanity Video 2013 Yale University
- Chronologie humaine (interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
- Human Evolution, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Steve Jones, Fred Spoor & Margaret Clegg (In Our Time, February 16, 2006)
- Evolutionary Timeline of Home Sapiens − Smithsonian (February 2021)
280 ms 7.6%
Scribunto_LuaSandboxCallback::match 200 ms 5.4%
Scribunto_LuaSandboxCallback::find 180 ms 4.9%
type 180 ms 4.9%
Scribunto_LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction 140 ms 3.8%
Scribunto_LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode 120 ms 3.3%
recursiveClone
[others] 1280 ms 34.8%
Number of Wikibase entities loaded: 1/400
–>
Source de l’article
